View source for Sexual identity

{{short description|How a person thinks of oneself with regard to romantic and sexual orientation and behaviour}}
{{Distinguish|sexual orientation|gender identity}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
'''Sexual identity''' is how one thinks of oneself in terms of to whom one is [[romance (love)|romantically]] or [[Sexual attraction|sexually]] attracted.<ref name="Reiter">{{cite journal |author=Reiter L |title=Sexual orientation, sexual identity, and the question of choice|journal=Clinical Social Work Journal|volume=17|issue=2|pages=138–50|year=1989|doi=10.1007/BF00756141|s2cid=144530462}}[https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00756141]</ref> ''Sexual identity'' may also refer to '''sexual orientation identity''', which is when people identify or dis-identify with a [[sexual orientation]] or choose not to identify with a sexual orientation.<ref name=apa2009>{{cite web |title=Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|pages=63, 86|date=2009|access-date=February 3, 2015|url=http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/therapeutic-response.pdf|quote=Sexual orientation identity—not sexual orientation—appears to change via psychotherapy, support groups, and life events.}}</ref> Sexual identity and [[Human sexual activity|sexual behavior]] are closely related to sexual orientation, but they are distinguished,<ref name="Reiter"/> with ''[[Identity (social science)|identity]]'' referring to an individual's conception of themselves, ''behavior'' referring to actual sexual acts performed by the individual, and ''sexual orientation'' referring to romantic or sexual attractions toward persons of the opposite [[sex]] or [[gender]], the same sex or gender, to both sexes or more than one gender, or to no one.

Historical models of sexual identity have tended to view its formation as a process undergone only by [[Sexual minority|sexual minorities]], while more contemporary models view the process as far more universal and attempt to present sexual identity within the larger scope of other major identity theories and processes.<ref name="Dillon, F. R. 2011 pp.649-670">Dillon, F. R., Worthington, R. L., & Moradi, B. (2011). Sexual identity as a universal process In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols 1 and 2), (pp.649-670). New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media</ref>

==Definitions and identity ==
Sexual identity has been described as a component of an individual's identity that reflects their sexual self-concept. The integration of the respective identity components (e.g. moral, religious, ethnic, occupational) into a greater overall identity is essential to the process of developing the multi-dimensional construct of identity.<ref>Luyckx, K., Schwartz, S. J., Goossens, L., Beyers, W., & Missotten, L. (2011). Processes of personal identity formation and evaluation. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles(Eds), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols 1 and 2) (pp.77-98). New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media</ref>

Sexual identity can change throughout an individual's life, and may or may not align with biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation.<ref>Sinclair, Karen, About Whoever: The Social Imprint on Identity and Orientation, NY, 2013 {{ISBN|9780981450513}}</ref><ref name="Rosario et al.">{{cite journal | last1 = Rosario | first1 = M. | last2 = Schrimshaw | first2 = E. | last3 = Hunter | first3 = J. | last4 = Braun | first4 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 43 | issue = 1| pages = 46–58 | doi=10.1080/00224490609552298| pmid = 16817067 | pmc = 3215279}}</ref><ref name="Concordance/discordance in SO">{{cite journal|first=Michael W.
|last=Ross|author2=Essien, E. James |author3=Williams, Mark L. |author4= Fernandez-Esquer, Maria Eugenia. |title=Concordance Between Sexual Behavior and Sexual Identity in Street Outreach Samples of Four Racial/Ethnic Groups|publisher=American Sexually Transmitted Diseases Association|year=2003|pmid=12567166|journal=Sexually Transmitted Diseases|volume=30|issue=2|pages=110–113|doi=10.1097/00007435-200302000-00003|s2cid=21881268}}</ref> In a 1990 study by the Social Organization of [[Sexuality]], only 16% of women and 36% of men who reported some level of [[Homosexuality|same-sex attraction]] had a homosexual or [[bisexual]] identity.<ref name=survey>{{cite book|title=The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States|last=Laumann|first=Edward O.|year=1994|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72AHO0rE2HoC&q=the+social+organization+of+sexuality+1990&pg=PA4|pages=298–301|isbn=9780226470207}}</ref>

Sexual identity is more closely related to sexual behavior than sexual orientation is. The same survey found that 96% of women and 87% of men with a homosexual or bisexual identity had engaged in sexual activity with someone of the same sex, contrasted to 32% of women and 43% of men who had same-sex attractions. Upon reviewing the results, the organization commented: "Development of self-identification as homosexual or gay is a psychological and socially complex state, something which, in this [[society]], is achieved only over time, often with considerable personal struggle and self-doubt, not to mention social discomfort."<ref name=survey />

===Identities===
[[Zoosexuality]] describes a pattern of attraction to animals.

[[Heterosexuality]] describes a pattern of attraction to persons of the opposite sex.<ref name=apa>{{cite web|title=Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|access-date=August 10, 2013|url=http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx|archive-date=August 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808032050/http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx}}</ref> The term ''straight'' is commonly used to refer to heterosexuals.<ref name=Bailey16>{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=J. Michael|last2=Vasey|first2=Paul|last3=Diamond|first3=Lisa|last4=Breedlove|first4=S. Marc|last5=Vilain|first5=Eric|last6=Epprecht|first6=Marc|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|date=2016|volume=17|issue=2|pages=45–101|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|pmid=27113562|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075|doi-access=free}}</ref> Heterosexuals are by far the largest sexual identity group.<ref name=Bailey16/>

[[Bisexuality]] describes a pattern of attraction toward both males and females,<ref name=apa/> or to more than one sex or gender.<ref>{{cite web|title=Understanding Bisexuality|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|date=2019|access-date=March 8, 2019|url=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/bisexual}}</ref> A bisexual identity does not necessarily equate to equal sexual attraction to both sexes; commonly, people who have a distinct but not exclusive sexual preference for one sex over the other also identify themselves as bisexual.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rosario | first1 = M. | last2 = Schrimshaw | first2 = E. | last3 = Hunter | first3 = J. | last4 = Braun | first4 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 43 | issue = 1| pages = 46–58 | doi=10.1080/00224490609552298| pmid = 16817067 | pmc = 3215279}}</ref>

[[Homosexuality]] describes a pattern of attraction to other persons of the same sex.<ref name=apa/> The term ''[[lesbian]]'' is commonly used to refer to homosexual women, and the term ''[[gay]]'' is commonly used to refer to homosexual men, although ''gay'' is sometimes used to refer to women as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glaad.org/files/MediaReferenceGuide2010.pdf|title=GLAAD Media Reference Guide|access-date=September 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112111339/http://www.glaad.org/files/MediaReferenceGuide2010.pdf|archive-date=November 12, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Asexuality]] is the lack of sexual attraction to others, or low or absent interest in or desire for sexual activity.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert L. Crooks |author2=Karla Baur|title=Our Sexuality|isbn=978-1305887428|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2016|page=300|access-date=January 4, 2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isIaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT300}}</ref> It may also be categorized more widely to include a broad spectrum of [[Gray asexuality|asexual sub-identities]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scherrer|first=Kristin|title=Coming to an Asexual Identity: Negotiating Identity, Negotiating Desire|journal=Sexualities|volume=11|issue=5|pages=621–641|doi=10.1177/1363460708094269|pmid=20593009|pmc=2893352|year=2008}}</ref> Asexuality is distinct from [[sexual abstinence|abstention from sexual activity]] and from [[celibacy]].<ref name="Halter">{{cite book|author=Margaret Jordan Halter |author2=Elizabeth M. Varcarolis|title=Varcarolis' Foundations of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing|isbn=978-1-4557-5358-1|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|year=2013|page=382|access-date=May 7, 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZ15AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA382}}</ref><ref name="DePaulo">{{cite magazine|first=Bella|last=DePaulo|title=ASEXUALS: Who Are They and Why Are They Important?|magazine=[[Psychology Today]]|date=September 26, 2011|access-date=December 13, 2011|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/living-single/200912/asexuals-who-are-they-and-why-are-they-important}}</ref>

[[Pansexuality]] describes attraction towards people regardless of their sex or [[gender identity]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Mental health issues in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities |last1=Hill |first1=Marjorie J. |last2=Jones |first2=Billy E. |year=2002 |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |isbn=978-1-58562-069-2 |page=95 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NxXRsIfcpgC |access-date=February 28, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Marshall Cavendish|title=Sex and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YtsxeWE7VD0C&pg=PA593 |access-date=July 28, 2013|volume=2|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=978-0-7614-7907-9|page=593}}</ref> Pansexual people may refer to themselves as gender-blind, asserting that gender and sex are not determining factors in their romantic or sexual attraction to others.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = Lisa M. | last2 = Butterworth | first2 = Molly | title = Questioning gender and sexual identity: dynamic links over time | journal = [[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] | volume = 59 | issue = 5&ndash;6 | pages = 365&ndash;376 | doi = 10.1007/s11199-008-9425-3 | date=September 2008 | s2cid = 143706723 }} [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lisa_Diamond4/publication/225748244_Questioning_Gender_and_Sexual_Identity_Dynamic_Links_Over_Time/links/587adec408aed3826ae7bd8b/Questioning-Gender-and-Sexual-Identity-Dynamic-Links-Over-Time.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref>The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of English]]'' defines pansexual as: "Not limited in sexual choice with regard to biological sex, gender, or gender identity".{{cite web|url = http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/pansexual |title=definition of pansexual from Oxford Dictionaries Online|publisher = Oxford Dictionaries |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150210180124/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/pansexual |archive-date=2015-02-10 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all |access-date=2015-05-31}}</ref> Pansexuality is sometimes considered a type of bisexuality.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firestein |first=Beth A. |title=Becoming Visible: Counseling Bisexuals Across the Lifespan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pCKkZmBU1EC&pg=PA9 |access-date=July 28, 2013 |year=2007 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13724-9|page=9}}</ref>

Polysexuality has been defined as "encompassing or characterized by many different kinds of sexuality",<ref>[[John Simpson (lexicographer)|Simpson, John]] (ed.) (2009). ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', ''[[Oxford University Press]]'', USA, {{ISBN|9780199563838}}</ref> and as sexual attraction to many, but not all, genders.<ref name=tucker>[[Mykel Board|Board, Mykel]]. "Pimple No More." In Tucker, Naomi S. (ed.) ''Bisexual Politics: Theories, Queries, and Visions''. [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|9781560238690}}</ref>{{rp|281-287}} Those who use the term may be doing so as a replacement for the term ''bisexual'', believing ''bisexual'' reifies [[dichotomy|dichotomies]].<ref>Garnets, Linda; Kimmel, Douglas C. (2003). ''Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Experiences.'' [[Columbia University Press]], {{ISBN|9780231124133}}</ref> Major [[monotheistic]] religions generally prohibit polysexual activity, but some religions incorporate it into their practices.<ref>[[Loraine Hutchins|Hutchins, Loraine]]; [[H. Sharif Williams|Williams, H. Sharif]] (2011). ''Sexuality, Religion and the Sacred: Bisexual, Pansexual and Polysexual Perspectives.'' [[Taylor & Francis]], {{ISBN|9780415783040}}</ref> ''Polysexuality'' is also considered to be another word for bisexuality.<ref name=tucker/>{{rp|322}}

{{vanchor|Sapiosexuality}} describes attraction to the intelligence of another person.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2014/12/04/368441691/sapiosexual-seeks-same-a-new-lexicon-enters-online-dating-mainstream|title=Sapiosexual Seeks Same: A New Lexicon Enters Online Dating Mainstream|last=Ulaby|first=Neda|date=December 4, 2014|website=National Public Radio|access-date=March 4, 2019}}</ref> The prefix ''sapio-'' comes from the Latin for "I [have] taste" or "I [have] wisdom" and refers to a person's preferences, proclivities, and common sense.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=sapio&la=la#lexicon|title=Latin Word Study Tool|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu |df=mdy-all |access-date=2019-11-18}}</ref> Sapiosexual-identifying individuals can also be gay, straight, or bisexual.<ref name=nyt>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/02/nyregion/the-hottest-body-part-for-a-sapiosexual-its-the-brain.html|title=The Hottest Body Part? For a Sapiosexual, It's the Brain|last=North|first=Anna|date=June 2, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 6, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.therecord.com/living-story/7211102--sapiosexual-yes-there-s-an-app-for-that/|title='Sapiosexual': yes, there's an app for that|last=McKnight|first=Zoe|date=March 27, 2017|website=The Record|access-date=March 8, 2019}}</ref> It is not a [[sexual orientation]].<ref name=nyt/><ref name=dailybeast/> It first gained mainstream attention in 2014 when dating website [[OkCupid]] added it as one of several new sexual orientation and gender identity options.<ref name=nyt/> About 0.5% of OkCupid users identify as sapiosexual, and it is most common among those ages 31–40.<ref name=nyt/> Women are more likely to identify as sapiosexual than men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gignac|first1=Gilles|last2=Darbyshire|first2=Joey|last3=Ooi|first3=Michelle|date=Winter 2018|title=Some people are attracted sexually to intelligence: A psychometric evaluation of sapiosexuality|journal=Intelligence|volume=66|pages=98–111|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2017.11.009}}</ref> Several commentators have stated that sapiosexuality is "elitist," "discriminatory," and "pretentious."<ref name=nyt/><ref name=dailybeast>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/pretentious-is-not-a-sexual-orientation|title=Pretentious Is Not A Sexual Orientation|last=Allen|first=Samantha|date=April 18, 2015|website=The Daily Beast |access-date=March 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sex-and-relationships/are-you-a-sapiosexual-that-s-the-term-bouncing-around-the-sphere-of-social-media/story-vPlS3J03BIQQ9OH3lYtFjL.html|title=Are you a sapiosexual? That's the term bouncing around the sphere of social media|last=Dogra|first=Aditya|date=June 7, 2017|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=March 7, 2019}}</ref> OkCupid removed the Sapiosexual identity on February 11th 2019<ref name="OkCupid Gender and Orientation">{{cite web |url=https://help.okcupid.com/article/208-gender-and-orientation-on-okcupid |title=Gender and Orientation on OkCupid |publisher=OkCupid.com}}</ref> following considerable negative feedback, specifically quoting an article on [[Vice_(magazine)|Vice Magazine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/43gd5p/sapiosexuals-people-who-only-have-sex-with-smart-people |title=People Who Only Want to Fuck Smart People Created Their Own 'Sexual Orientation'}}</ref>

{{vanchor|Relationship anarchy}} combines polyamory and anarchist principles. Its practice has no norms but tends towards criticism of American relationship norms, absence of demands and expectations on partners, and lack of distinction between hierarchical value of friendship and romantic relationships.<ref name="DeLamaterPlante2015">{{cite book|last1=DeLamater|first1=John|last2=Plante|first2=Rebecca F.|title=Handbook of the Sociology of Sexualities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0d3yCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|year=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-17341-2|page=230}}</ref>

===Unlabeled sexuality===
Unlabeled sexuality is when an individual chooses not to label their sexual identity. This identification could stem from one's uncertainty about their sexuality or their unwillingness to conform to a sexuality because they don't necessarily like labels, or they wish to feel free in their attractions instead of feeling forced into same, other, both, or all attractions because of their sexual identity. Identifying as unlabeled could also be because of one's "unwillingness to accept their sexual minority status."<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = Lisa M | year = 2007 | title = A dynamical systems approach to the development and expression of female same-sex sexuality | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 142–161 | doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00034.x| pmid = 26151957 | s2cid = 9799972 }}</ref> Because being unlabeled is the purposeful decision of no sexual identity, it is different from bisexuality or any other sexual identity. Those who are unlabeled are more likely to view sexuality as less stable and more fluid and tend to focus more on the “person, not the gender.”<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal | last1 = Brooks | first1 = Kelly D. | last2 = Quina | first2 = Kathryn | year = 2009 | title = Women's sexual identity patterns: Differences among lesbians, bisexuals, and unlabeled women | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 56 | issue = 8| pages = 1030–1045 | doi=10.1080/00918360903275443| pmid = 19882425 | s2cid = 29970857 }}</ref>
	
It is reported that some women who identify as unlabeled did so because they are unable or uncertain about the types of relationships they will have in the future. As such, this divergence from sexual labels could provide for a person to be able to more fully realize their "true" sexuality because it frees them from the pressure of liking and being attracted to who their sexual identification dictates they should like.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="ReferenceC"/>

==Development==
{{See also|Coming out|Homosexuality and psychology}}

===General===
Most of the research on sexual orientation identity development focuses on the development of people who are attracted to the same sex. Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex [[coming out|come out]] at some point in their lives. ''Coming out'' is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization emerges that one is sexually and emotionally attracted to members of one's own sex. This is often described as an internal coming out and can occur in childhood or at puberty, but sometimes as late as age 40 or older. The second phase involves a decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues, while the third phase involves living openly as an [[LGBT]] person.<ref name="hrccontinuum">{{cite news |df=mdy-all |access-date=2007-05-04 |url=http://dev.hrc.org/issues/3333.htm |periodical=[[Human Rights Campaign]] |title=The Coming Out Continuum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102101657/http://dev.hrc.org/issues/3333.htm |archive-date=2007-11-02}}</ref> In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes they do not inform their own families.

According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity" and "[r]ather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality."<ref name="Rosario et al."/>

Some individuals with [[ego-dystonic sexual orientation|unwanted sexual attractions]] may choose to actively dis-identify with a sexual minority identity, which creates a different sexual orientation identity from their actual sexual orientation. Sexual orientation identity, but not sexual orientation, can change through [[psychotherapy]], [[support group]]s, and life events.<ref name=apa2009/> A person who has homosexual feelings can self-identify in various ways. An individual may come to accept an LGB identity, to develop a [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] identity, to reject an LGB identity while choosing to identify as [[ex-gay]], or to refrain from specifying a sexual identity.<ref name=apa60>[http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/therapeutic-response.pdf Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation], pp. 60-61.</ref> 

===Models of sexual identity development===
Several models have been created to describe coming out as a process for gay and lesbian identity development (e.g. Dank, 1971; Cass, 1984; Coleman, 1989; Troiden, 1989). These historical models have taken a view of sexual identity formation as a sexual-minority process only.<ref>Savin-Williams, R. (2011) Identity development among sexual-minority youth. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles(Eds), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols 1 and 2) (pp.671-689). New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media</ref> However, not every LGBT person follows such a model. For example, some LGBT youth become aware of and accept their same-sex desires or gender identity at puberty in a way similar to which heterosexual teens become aware of their sexuality, i.e. free of any notion of difference, stigma or shame in terms of the gender of the people to whom they are attracted.<ref>Savin-Williams, R. (2005). The new gay teenager. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press</ref> More contemporary models take the stance that it is a more universal process.<ref name="Dillon, F. R. 2011 pp.649-670"/><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Morgan | first1 = E. M. | year = 2012 | title = Not always a straight path: College students' narratives of heterosexual identity development | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 66 | issue = 1–2| pages = 79–93 | doi = 10.1007/s11199-011-0068-4| s2cid = 145141123 }}</ref> Current models for the development of sexual identity attempt to incorporate other models of identity development, such as [[James Marcia|Marcia]]’s ego-identity statuses.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Worthington | first1 = R. L. | last2 = Navarro | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Savoy | first3 = H. B. | last4 = Hampton | first4 = D. | year = 2008 | title = Development, reliability, and validity of the measure of sexual identity exploration and commitment (MOSIEC) | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 44 | issue = 1| pages = 22–33 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.22 | pmid=18194002}}</ref>

The [[Cass identity model]], established by Vivienne Cass, outlines six discrete stages transited by individuals who successfully come out: (1) identity confusion, (2) identity comparison, (3) identity tolerance, (4) identity acceptance, (5) identity pride, and (6) identity synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cass | first1 = V. C. | year = 1979 | title = Homosexuality identity formation: A theoretical model | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 219–235 | doi=10.1300/j082v04n03_01 | pmid=264126}}</ref> [[Fassinger's model of gay and lesbian identity development]] contains four stages at the individual and group level: (1) awareness, (2) exploration, (3) deepening/commitment, and (4) internalization/synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fassinger | first1 = R. E. | last2 = Miller | first2 = B. A. | year = 1997 | title = Validation of an Inclusive Modelof Sexual Minority Identity Formation on a Sample of Gay Men | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 53–78 | doi=10.1300/j082v32n02_04| pmid = 9010826 }}</ref>

Some models of sexual identity development do not use discrete, ordered stages, but instead conceptualize identity development as consisting of independent identity processes. For example, D'Augelli's model describes six unordered independent identity processes: (1) exiting heterosexual identity, (2) developing personal LGB identity status, (3) developing an LGB social identity, (4) becoming an LGB offspring, (5) developing an LGB [[intimacy]] status, and (6) entering an LGB community.<ref>D'Augelli, A. R. (1994). Identity development and sexual orientation: Toward a model of lesbian, gay, and bisexual development.</ref>

The Unifying Model of Sexual Identity Development is currently the only model that incorporates heterosexual identity development within its statuses to include compulsory heterosexuality, active exploration, diffusion, deepening and commitment to status, and synthesis.<ref>Dillion, F. R., Worthington, R. L., & Moradi, B. (2011). Sexual identity as a universal process. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 649-670). New York: Springer.</ref>

Contemporary models view sexual identity formation as a universal process, rather than a sexual minority one, in that it is not only sexual minorities that undergo sexual identity development, but heterosexual populations as well.<ref name="Dillon, F. R. 2011 pp.649-670" /> More recent research has supported these theories, having demonstrated that heterosexual populations display all of Marcia's statuses within the domain of sexual identity.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Worthington | first1 = R. L. | last2 = Savoy | first2 = H. B. | last3 = Dillon | first3 = F. R. | last4 = Vernaglia | first4 = E. R. | year = 2002 | title = Heterosexual identity development. A multidimensional model of individual and social identity | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/810266ce452d976250089608b8ad922d275a3ff9| journal = Counseling Psychologist | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 496–531 | doi = 10.1177/00100002030004002| s2cid = 4817535 }}</ref>

==References==
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