View source for Campylobacter

{{Short description|Genus of Gram-negative bacteria}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = ARS Campylobacter jejuni.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Campylobacter jejuni]]''
| taxon = Campylobacter
| authority = Sebald & Véron, 1963
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Campylobacter avium|C. avium]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter butzleri|C. butzleri]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter canadensis|C. canadensis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter cinaedi|C. cinaedi]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter coli|C. coli]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter concisus|C. concisus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter corcagiensis|C. corcagiensis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter cryaerophilus|C. cryaerophilus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter cuniculorum|C. cuniculorum]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter curvus|C. curvus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter fennelliae|C. fennelliae]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter fetus|C. fetus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter gracilis|C. gracilis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter helveticus|C. helveticus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter hepaticus|C. hepaticus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter hominis|C. hominis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter hyoilei|C. hyoilei]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter hyointestinalis|C. hyointestinalis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter insulaenigrae|C. insulaenigrae]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter jejuni|C. jejuni]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter lanienae|C. lanienae]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter lari|C. lari]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter mucosalis|C. mucosalis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter mustelae|C. mustelae]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter nitrofigilis|C. nitrofigilis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter peloridis|C. peloridis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter pylori|C. pylori]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter rectus|C. rectus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter showae|C. showae]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter sputorum|C. sputorum]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter subantarcticus|C. subantarcticus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter upsaliensis|C. upsaliensis]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter ureolyticus|C. ureolyticus]]''<br />
''[[Campylobacter volucris|C. volucris]]''
}}

'''''Campylobacter''''' (meaning "curved bacteria") is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative bacteria]].<ref name="Bergey's">{{cite book | vauthors = Vandamme P, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ, On SL |year=2006 | veditors = Garrity G, Brenner DJ, Staley JT, Krieg NR, Boone DR, DeVos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer KH | display-editors = 6 |title=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology: Volume Two: The Proteobacteria (Part C) |edition=2nd |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |pages=1147–1160 |isbn=978-0-387-29298-4}}</ref> ''Campylobacter'' typically appear comma- or s-shaped, and are [[Motility#Cellular-level motility|motile]].<ref name="Bergey's" /> Some ''Campylobacter'' species can infect humans, sometimes causing [[campylobacteriosis]], a diarrhoeal disease in humans.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blaser MJ | title = Epidemiologic and clinical features of Campylobacter jejuni infections | journal = The Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 176 Suppl 2 | issue = Supplement_2 | pages = S103-5 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9396691 | doi = 10.1086/513780 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Campylobacteriosis is usually self-limiting and antimicrobial treatment is often not required, except in severe cases or immunocompromised patients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Skarp CP, Hänninen ML, Rautelin HI | title = Campylobacteriosis: the role of poultry meat | journal = Clinical Microbiology and Infection | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–109 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26686808 | doi = 10.1016/j.cmi.2015.11.019 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The most known source for ''Campylobacter'' is [[poultry]], but due to their diverse [[natural reservoir]], ''Campylobacter'' spp. can also be transmitted ''via'' water.<ref name="cazp"/> Other known sources of ''Campylobacter'' infections include food products, such as unpasteurised milk and contaminated fresh produce.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Infectious disease Campylobacter clinical Foodborne illnesses {{!}} CDC|url = https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/diseases/campylobacter/technical.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2016-02-14}}</ref> Sometimes the source of infection can be direct contact with infected animals, which often carry ''Campylobacter'' [[Subclinical infection|asymptomatically]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Campylobacter Infections: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology|url = http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213720-overview|date = 2019-02-02}}</ref> At least a dozen species of ''Campylobacter'' have been implicated in human disease, with [[Campylobacter jejuni|''C. jejuni'']] (80–90%) and ''[[Campylobacter coli|C. coli]]'' (5-10%) being the most common.<ref name="Sherris" /><ref name=":2" /> ''[[Campylobacter jejuni|C. jejuni]]'' is recognized as one of the [[Portal:Main|main]] causes of [[Gastroenteritis#Bacterial|bacterial foodborne disease]] in many developed countries.<ref name="Sherris">{{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG |title=Sherris Medical Microbiology: An Introduction to Infectious Diseases |url=https://archive.org/details/sherrismedicalmi00ryan |url-access=limited |edition=4th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sherrismedicalmi00ryan/page/n395 378]–80 |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8385-8529-0}}</ref><ref name="Moore_2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moore JE, Corcoran D, Dooley JS, Fanning S, Lucey B, Matsuda M, McDowell DA, Mégraud F, Millar BC, O'Mahony R, O'Riordan L, O'Rourke M, Rao JR, Rooney PJ, Sails A, Whyte P | display-authors = 6 | title = Campylobacter | journal = Veterinary Research | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 351–82 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15845230 | doi = 10.1051/vetres:2005012 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00902984/file/hal-00902984.pdf | doi-access = free }}</ref> It is the number one cause of bacterial [[Gastroenteritis|gastroentritis]] in Europe, with over 246,000 cases confirmed annually.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Campylobacter|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/campylobacter|access-date=2020-11-02|website=European Food Safety Authority|language=en}}</ref> ''[[Campylobacter jejuni|C. jejuni]]'' infection can also cause [[bacteremia]] in immunocompromised individuals, while ''[[Campylobacter lari|C. lari]]'' is a known cause of recurrent diarrhea in children.<ref name=":0" /> ''[[Campylobacter fetus|C. fetus]]'' can cause spontaneous abortions in [[cattle]] and [[sheep]], and is  an [[Opportunistic infection|opportunistic pathogen]] in humans.<ref name="Sauerwein_1993">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sauerwein RW, Bisseling J, Horrevorts AM | title = Septic abortion associated with Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus infection: case report and review of the literature | journal = Infection | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 331–3 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8300253 | doi = 10.1007/BF01712458 | s2cid = 28539930 }}</ref>

== Morphology and Phenotype ==
''Campylobacter'' [[Species|spp]]. generally appear as curved or comma-shaped [[Rod-shaped bacterium|rods]], and are able to move via unipolar or bipolar [[Flagellum#Bacterial|flagella]].<ref name="Bergey's" /> They grow best between 37–42&nbsp;°C in a [[Microaerophile|microaerophilic]] environment.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-23|title=Information for Health Professionals {{!}} Campylobacter {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/campylobacter/technical.html|access-date=2020-11-02|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, ''C. jejuni'' is able to change into a coccal form.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Crushell E, Harty S, Sharif F, Bourke B | title = Enteric campylobacter: purging its secrets? | journal = Pediatric Research | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–12 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14605259 | doi = 10.1203/01.PDR.0000099794.06260.71 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Most species of ''Campylobacter'' are positive by the [[oxidase test]] and [[catalase test]] and are able to [[Nitrate reductase test|reduce nitrate]]. The number of known [[Quinolone antibiotic|quinolone]]-resistant ''Campylobacter'' strains is growing. It is suggested that this is caused by the overuse of quinolone antibiotics in animal agriculture.<ref name=":1" />

== History ==
[[Theodor Escherich]] was the first to describe in 1886 what are known today as Campylobacters in the stool samples of infants, who perished from a disease he named "cholera infantum".<ref name="[[History]]">{{cite journal | vauthors = Samie A, Obi CL, Barrett LJ, Powell SM, Guerrant RL | title = Prevalence of Campylobacter species, Helicobacter pylori and Arcobacter species in stool samples from the Venda region, Limpopo, South Africa: studies using molecular diagnostic methods | journal = The Journal of Infection | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 558–66 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17145081 | doi = 10.1016/j.jinf.2006.10.047 }}</ref> In the following years until the end of the century, a number of publications appeared, describing the occurrence of such "spirilla" in cases of "cholera-like" and "dysenteric" disease. These organisms were mainly found in the colon or associated with mucous in diarrhoeal stool specimens. ''Vibrio''-like bacteria were also described by Sir [[John McFadyean]] and [[Stewart Stockman|Stockman]] in 1913 in fetal tissues of aborted sheep.<ref name="pmid10081669">{{cite journal | vauthors = Altekruse SF, Stern NJ, Fields PI, Swerdlow DL | title = Campylobacter jejuni--an emerging foodborne pathogen | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–35 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10081669 | pmc = 2627687 | doi = 10.3201/eid0501.990104 | oclc = 677425436 }}</ref> For several years Campylobacters were continuously referred to as ‘‘Vibrio-like organisms’’, until 1963 when Sebald and Veron gave the name "''Campylobacter''" to the genus based on their shape and microaerophilic growth requirement and after showing significant biological differences with ''Vibrio'' species.<ref name="History" />

== Genomics ==
The [[genome]]s of several ''Campylobacter'' species have been sequenced, beginning with ''C. jejuni'' in 2000.<ref name=Fouts_2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fouts DE, Mongodin EF, Mandrell RE, Miller WG, Rasko DA, Ravel J, Brinkac LM, DeBoy RT, Parker CT, Daugherty SC, Dodson RJ, Durkin AS, Madupu R, Sullivan SA, Shetty JU, Ayodeji MA, Shvartsbeyn A, Schatz MC, Badger JH, Fraser CM, Nelson KE | display-authors = 6 | title = Major structural differences and novel potential virulence mechanisms from the genomes of multiple campylobacter species | journal = PLoS Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e15 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15660156 | pmc = 539331 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030015 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Parkhill J, Wren BW, Mungall K, Ketley JM, Churcher C, Basham D, Chillingworth T, Davies RM, Feltwell T, Holroyd S, Jagels K, Karlyshev AV, Moule S, Pallen MJ, Penn CW, Quail MA, Rajandream MA, Rutherford KM, van Vliet AH, Whitehead S, Barrell BG | display-authors = 6 | title = The genome sequence of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni reveals hypervariable sequences | journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6770 | pages = 665–8 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10688204 | doi = 10.1038/35001088 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2000Natur.403..665P }}</ref> These genome studies have identified molecular markers specific to members of ''Campylobacter''{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}. ''Campylobacter'' ssp. genomes are rather small compared to those of other gastrointestinal pathogens, with sizes ranging between 1.60 and 1.90 Mbp.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Parkhill J, Wren BW, Mungall K, Ketley JM, Churcher C, Basham D, Chillingworth T, Davies RM, Feltwell T, Holroyd S, Jagels K, Karlyshev AV, Moule S, Pallen MJ, Penn CW, Quail MA, Rajandream MA, Rutherford KM, van Vliet AH, Whitehead S, Barrell BG | display-authors = 6 | title = The genome sequence of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni reveals hypervariable sequences | journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6770 | pages = 665–8 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10688204 | doi = 10.1038/35001088 | s2cid = 205004234 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A characteristic of most ''Campylobacter'' genomes is the presence of [[hypervariable region]]s, which can differ greatly between different strains.<ref name=":3" />

Studies have investigated the genes responsible for motility in ''Campylobacter'' species. Some ''Campylobacter'' species contain two [[flagellin]] genes in tandem for motility, ''flaA'' and ''flaB''. These genes undergo [[intergenic]] recombination, [[further]] contributing to their virulence.<ref name=Gran_1993t>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grant CC, Konkel ME, Cieplak W, Tompkins LS | title = Role of flagella in adherence, internalization, and translocation of Campylobacter jejuni in nonpolarized and polarized epithelial cell cultures | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 61 | issue = 5 | pages = 1764–71 | date = May 1993 | pmid = 8478066 | pmc = 280763 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.61.5.1764-1771.1993 }}</ref>

== Bacteriophage ==
The confusing taxonomy of ''Campylobacter'' over the past decades makes identifying the earliest reports of ''Campylobacter'' [[bacteriophage]]s difficult{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}. Bacteriophages specific to the species now known as ''C. coli'' and ''C. fetus ''(previously ''Vibrio coli'' and ''V. fetus''), were first isolated from cattle and pigs during the 1960s, and ''Campylobacter'' [[bacteriophage therapy]] is an ongoing area of research in the age of bacterial antibiotic resistance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Firehammer BD, Border M | title = Isolation of temperate bacteriophages from Vibrio fetus | journal = American Journal of Veterinary Research | volume = 29 | issue = 11 | pages = 2229–35 | date = November 1968 | pmid = 5693467 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fletcher RD |year=1965 |title=Activity and morphology of Vibrio coli phage |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=26 |issue=111 |pages=361–4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fletcher RD, Bertschinger HU |title=A Method of Isolation ofVibrio colifrom Swine Fecal Material by Selective Filtration |journal=Zentralblatt für Veterinärmedizin. Reihe B |volume=11 |issue=6 |year=2010 |pages=469–74 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.1964.tb01075.x }}</ref><ref name="Connerton2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Connerton PL, Timms AR, Connerton IF | title = Campylobacter bacteriophages and bacteriophage therapy | journal = Journal of Applied Microbiology | volume = 111 | issue = 2 | pages = 255–65 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21447013 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.05012.x | s2cid = 46270047 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Pathogenesis ==
{{Main|Campylobacteriosis}}

''Campylobacter'' can cause a gastrointestinal infection, campylobacteriosis. The incubation period is 24–72 hours after infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zilbauer M, Dorrell N, Wren BW, Bajaj-Elliott M | title = Campylobacter jejuni-mediated disease pathogenesis: an update | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–9 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18023831 | doi = 10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.09.019 }}</ref> This is characterized by an inflammatory, sometimes bloody [[diarrhea]] or [[dysentery]] syndrome, mostly including cramps, fever, and pain.<ref name=cazp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Humphrey T, O'Brien S, Madsen M | title = Campylobacters as zoonotic pathogens: a food production perspective | journal = International Journal of Food Microbiology | volume = 117 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–57 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17368847 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.01.006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012 |publisher=CDC |date=April 18, 2013 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0418-foodborne-germs.html |access-date=October 22, 2015}}</ref> The most common routes of transmission are fecal-oral, ingestion of contaminated food or water, and the eating of raw meat. Foods implicated in campylobacteriosis include raw or under-cooked poultry, raw dairy products, and contaminated produce.<ref name="CDC41813" /> ''Campylobacter'' is sensitive to the stomach's normal production of [[hydrochloric acid]]: as a result, the [[infectious dose]] is relatively high, and the bacteria rarely cause illness when a person is exposed to less than 10,000 organisms.<ref name=":0" /> Nevertheless, people taking [[Antacid|antacid medication]] (e. g. people with [[gastritis]] or [[Peptic ulcer|stomach ulcers]]) are at higher risk of contracting disease from a smaller number of organisms, since this type of medication neutralizes normal [[gastric acid]].

In humans, the sites of tissue injury include the [[jejunum]], the [[ileum]], and the [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]].{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Most strains of ''C jejuni'' produce [[cytolethal distending toxin]], which inhibits cell division and impedes activation of the immune system.  This helps the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive for a limited time inside intestinal cells {{citation needed|date=April 2021}}. ''Campylobacter'' has, on rare occasions, been suggested to cause [[hemolytic uremic syndrome]] and [[thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura]], though no unequivocal case reports exist {{citation needed|date=April 2021}}. In some cases, a ''Campylobacter'' infection can be the underlying cause of [[Guillain–Barré syndrome]]. [[Gastrointestinal perforation]] is a rare complication of ileal infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jassim SS, Malik A, Aldridge A |title=Small bowel perforation: an unusual cause |journal=Grand Rounds |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=17–9 |doi=10.1102/1470-5206.2011.0006}}</ref>

''Campylobacter'' has also been associated with [[periodontitis]].<ref name=cazp />

== Detection ==
Campylobacter testing needs to be done to manage the risk of foodborne ''Campylobacter'' and reducing the level of foodborne ''Campoboteriosis'', to protect people and to determine if a person is infected with ''Campylobacter.''

=== In humans ===
Usually, detection of ''Campylobacter'' in humans is done by laboratory culturing a stool sample or swab of the rectum collected by a healthcare provider. Results take about 48–72 hours for preliminary results. Confirmation test and testing to determine the species of Campylobacter or drug sensitivities of the organism require additional time.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buss JE, Cresse M, Doyle S, Buchan BW, Craft DW, Young S | title = Campylobacter culture fails to correctly detect Campylobacter in 30% of positive patient stool specimens compared to non-cultural methods | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 1087–1093 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 30783889 | doi = 10.1007/s10096-019-03499-x | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== In livestock ===
Usually, detection of Campylobacter in livestock is done by laboratory culturing a faecal sample. Results take about 48–72 hours.<ref name="Rapid detection of Campylobacter co">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hong Y, Berrang ME, Liu T, Hofacre CL, Sanchez S, Wang L, Maurer JJ | title = Rapid detection of Campylobacter coli, C. jejuni, and Salmonella enterica on poultry carcasses by using PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 69 | issue = 6 | pages = 3492–9 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12788755 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.69.6.3492-3499.2003 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== In meat ===
Usually, detection of Campylobacter in meat is done by laboratory culturing a homogenised sample. Results takes about 48–72 hours.<ref name="Rapid detection of Campylobacter co"/>

== Treatment ==
The infection is usually self-limiting and, in most cases, symptomatic treatment by liquid and electrolyte replacement is sufficient to treat human infections.  Symptoms typically last 5–7 days.<ref name="CDC41813" /> Treatment with antibiotics has little effect, and is discouraged except in high-risk patients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ternhag A, Asikainen T, Giesecke J, Ekdahl K | title = A meta-analysis on the effects of antibiotic treatment on duration of symptoms caused by infection with Campylobacter species | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 696–700 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17278062 | doi = 10.1086/509924 }}</ref> <!-- as of November 2016, most recent 'ideal' MEDRS - not a controversial/fast-moving issue  -->
Diagnosis of campylobacteriosis is made by testing a fecal specimen. Standard treatment in high-risk cases is [[azithromycin]], a [[macrolide]] antibiotic, especially for ''Campylobacter'' infections in children,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vukelic D, Trkulja V, Salkovic-Petrisic M | title = Single oral dose of azithromycin versus 5 days of oral erythromycin or no antibiotic in treatment of campylobacter enterocolitis in children: a prospective randomized assessor-blind study | journal = Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 404–10 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 19881393 | doi = 10.1097/MPG.0b013e3181a87104 | s2cid = 22460970 }}</ref> although other antibiotics, such as quinolones, tetracycline and other macrolides are sometimes used to treat gastrointestinal ''Campylobacter'' infections in adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gendrel D, Cohen R | title = [Bacterial diarrheas and antibiotics: European recommendations] | language = fr | journal = Archives de Pédiatrie | volume = 15 Suppl 2 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = S93-6 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 19000862 | doi = 10.1016/S0929-693X(08)74223-4 | trans-title = Bacterial diarrheas and antibiotics: European recommendations }}</ref> In case of systemic infection, other bactericidal antibiotics are used, such as [[ampicillin]], [[amoxicillin/clavulanic acid]], or [[aminoglycoside]]s. [[Fluoroquinolone]] antibiotics, such as [[ciprofloxacin]] or [[levofloxacin]], may no longer be effective in some cases, due to resistance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lehtopolku M, Nakari UM, Kotilainen P, Huovinen P, Siitonen A, Hakanen AJ | title = Antimicrobial susceptibilities of multidrug-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli strains: in vitro activities of 20 antimicrobial agents | journal = Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 1232–6 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20038624 | pmc = 2825995 | doi = 10.1128/AAC.00898-09 }}</ref> In addition to antibiotics, dehydrated children may require intravenous fluid treatment in a hospital.

== Epidemiology ==
=== United Kingdom ===

In January 2013, the [[UK]]'s [[Food Standards Agency]] (FSA) warned that two-thirds of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with ''Campylobacter'', affecting an estimated half a million people annually and killing about 100 of them.<ref name=FSA>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/9820838/FSA-warns-that-chicken-bacteria-could-be-next-meat-scandal.html |title=FSA warns that chicken bacteria could be next meat scandal |date=January 23, 2013 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref> In June 2014, the FSA started a campaign against washing raw chicken, as washing can spread [[Germ (microorganism)|germs]] onto clean surfaces by splashing.<ref name=FSA2>{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/campaigns/campylobacter/fsw-2014/ |title=Don't wash raw chicken |publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]]}}</ref> In May 2015, cumulative results for samples taken from fresh chickens between February 2014 and February 2015 were published by the FSA and showed 73% of chickens tested positive for the presence of ''Campylobacter''.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Campylobacter survey: cumulative results from the full 12 months (Q1 – Q4) |publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]] |date=May 28, 2015 |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/news/2015/14003/campylobacter-survey-results-12months |access-date=October 23, 2015}}</ref>

=== United States ===
''Campylobacter'' infections increased 14% in the United States in 2012 compared to the rate from 2006 to 2008.  This represents the highest reported number of infections since calendar year 2000.<ref name="CDC41813">{{cite news|title=Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0418-foodborne-germs.html|access-date=April 19, 2013|newspaper=Centers for Disease Control|date=April 18, 2013}}</ref>

High prevalence of ''Campylobacter'' (40% or more) has been reported in raw chicken meat in regional retail stores in the US, which remained steady from 2005 through 2011.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams A, Oyarzabal OA | title = Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in skinless, boneless retail broiler meat from 2005 through 2011 in Alabama, USA | journal = BMC Microbiology | volume = 12 | pages = 184 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22920043 | pmc = 3490988 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2180-12-184 }}</ref> The last [[USDA]] quarterly progress report on ''Salmonella'' and ''Campylobacter'' testing of meat and poultry, for July–September 2014, showed a low prevalence of ''Campylobacter'' spp. in ground chicken meat, but a larger prevalence (20%) in [[Mechanically separated meat|mechanically separated chicken meat]] (which is sold only for further processing).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/data-collection-and-reports/microbiology/quarterly-reports-salmonella/q3-cy2014/q3-cy-2014 |title=Quarterly Progress Report on Salmonella and Campylobacter|department=Testing of Selected Raw Meat and Poultry Products: Preliminary Results, July 2014 to September 2014 |date=2015-04-24|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]|website=[[Food Safety and Inspection Service]]}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
FoodNet Canada has reported that ''Campylobacter'' was the most common pathogen found on packaged chicken breast, with nearly half of all samples testing positive. Additionally, ''Campylobacter'' and ''Salmonella'' were the most common causes of gastrointestinal illness in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/foodnetcanada/report-rapport-2014-eng.php |title=FoodNet Canada 2014 Short Report |access-date=3 October 2016 |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada, FoodNet Canada|date=2016-01-12 }}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
In August 2016, an estimated 8,000+ residents of [[Havelock North]], a town with around 13,000 residents, had gastric illness after the water supply was thought to be contaminated by ''Campylobacter''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/83343963/campylobacter-confirmed-in-woman-who-died-in-havelock-north-gastro-outbreak|title=Woman died in Havelock North gastro outbreak|date=19 August 2016|publisher=Stuff}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/311335/govt-rejects-call-for-hawke's-bay-water-emergency-declaration|title=Govt rejects call for Hawke's Bay water emergency declaration|date=19 August 2016|publisher=Radio New Zealand}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gilpin BJ, Walker T, Paine S, Sherwood J, Mackereth G, Wood T, Hambling T, Hewison C, Brounts A, Wilson M, Scholes P, Robson B, Lin S, Cornelius A, Rivas L, Hayman DT, French NP, Zhang J, Wilkinson DA, Midwinter AC, Biggs PJ, Jagroop A, Eyre R, Baker MG, Jones N | display-authors = 6 | title = A large scale waterborne Campylobacteriosis outbreak, Havelock North, New Zealand | journal = The Journal of Infection | volume = 81 | issue = 3 | pages = 390–395 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32610108 | doi = 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.065 }}</ref>

=== Norway ===
In June 2019, an estimated 2,000 residents of [[Askøy]] municipality got sick due to the presence of ''C. jejuni'' in the water supply. Two deaths were connected to the outbreak, and it was the largest outbreak of ''Campylobacter'' in Norway.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nrk.no/hordaland/fant-samme-bakterie-i-drikkevannet-som-hos-sykehuspasienter-fra-askoy-1.14583413|title=Fant samme bakterie i drikkevannet som hos sykehuspasienter fra Askøy|date=11 June 2019|publisher=NRK}}</ref> The suspected source of the contamination was thought to be [[horse]] faeces, which leaked into a drinking water pool.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paruch L, Paruch AM, Sørheim R | title = DNA-based faecal source tracking of contaminated drinking water causing a large Campylobacter outbreak in Norway 2019 | journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health | volume = 224 | pages = 113420 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31748129 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113420 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A ''C. jejuni'' water isolate thought to be the cause of the outbreak was examined with human isolates, and showed the highest pathogenic potential in vitro, transcriptomic and genomic investigations. This could suggest why the isolate was able to cause an outbreak.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Davies E, Ebbesen M, Johansson C, Kaden R, Rautelin H | title = Genomic and Phenotypic Characterisation of ''Campylobacter jejuni'' Isolates From a Waterborne Outbreak | journal = Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | volume = 10 | pages = 594856 | date = 2020 | pmid = 33194843 | pmc = 7658296 | doi = 10.3389/fcimb.2020.594856 }}</ref>

=== Sweden ===
During the period of August 2016 to June 2017 there was a large outbreak of ''C. jejuni'' in Sweden. It was the largest outbreak that has been reported so far. 5000 more cases than would be expected during this period were reported to the authorities. The source of the outbreak was contaminated chicken meat that came from the same producer. The reason for the increased incidence and elevated levels of ''Campylobacter'' was reported to be an improperly installed washing plant, where dirty water was accidentally used to wash transport cages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/folkhalsorapportering-statistik/tolkad-rapportering/arsrapporter-anmalningspliktiga-sjukdomar/arsrapporter-2017/utbrott-anmalningspliktiga-sjukdomar-2017/#campylobacter|title=Utbrott av anmälningspliktiga sjukdomar i Sverige 2017|access-date=27 May 2020|publisher=Folkhälsomyndigheten|date=2018-05-09}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Helicobacter]]

==References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [https://patricbrc.org/view/Taxonomy/194#view_tab=overview Campylobacter] genomes and related information at [http://patricbrc.org/ PATRIC], a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by [https://www.niaid.nih.gov/ NIAID]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/campylobacter/ ''Campylobacter'' info from the CDC]

{{Bacteria classification}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q131488}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Epsilonproteobacteria]]
[[Category:Capnophiles]]
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]