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| {{Essay}}
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| =Simple Summary=
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| ==Abstract==
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| ==2. Theoretical Approaches to Sexual Relations between Humans and Non-humans===
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| Sexual practices with animals have not been a key focus of attention within the social sciences in general, and anthropology in particular. Perspectives on sexuality have been profoundly influenced by biological, medical, and psychological discourses, but also by the moral prejudices and religious beliefs of the researchers themselves.
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| Sexuality has been interpreted in terms of reproduction, without taking into account other meanings and significances<ref name=":0">Kinsey A.C., Pomeroy W.B., Martin C.E. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. WB Saunders; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 1948. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Sexual+Behavior+in+the+Human+Male&author=A.C.+Kinsey&author=W.B.+Pomeroy&author=C.E.+Martin&publication_year=1948& Google Scholar]]</ref>. If this concealment has been evident in non-human interspecies relations, the silence surrounding human involvement in such practices is hardly surprising. Human-animal sexual practices not only call into question the model of heteronormativity, but also overstep the boundary of what is considered strictly human <ref>Vincent J. Nature adamique et nature déchue: Une culture qui ne dit pas son nom. In: Bartholeyns G., Dittmar P.O., Golsenne T., Har-Peled M., Jolivet V., editors. Adam et l’astragale: Essais d’anthropologie et d’histoire sur les Limites de L’humain. Editions de la MSH; Paris, France: 2009. pp. 137–152. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Adam+et+l%E2%80%99astragale:+Essais+d%E2%80%99anthropologie+et+d%E2%80%99histoire+sur+les+Limites+de+L%E2%80%99humain&author=J.+Vincent&publication_year=2009& Google Scholar]]</ref>. Shedding light on these ‘sexual relations’ ‘de-sacralises’ [[human sexuality]]. It harks back to an animality denied in anthropocentric visions, which represent humans as qualitatively different from other animals. It is no coincidence that these types of practices are recognised firstly in those considered ‘less’ human. Evidence of human-animal sexual relations has been used to stake out the boundary between ‘barbarians’ and ‘civilised’ peoples. Chroniclers who recounted processes of ‘colonisation’ regularly described all the practices that legitimised domination of the animalised ‘other’, a being that must be taught, dominated, and colonised<ref>Amodio E. El detestable pecado nefando: Diversidad sexual y control inquisitorial en Venezuela durante el Siglo XVIII. Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. 2012 doi: 10.4000/nuevomundo.63177. [[https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fnuevomundo.63177 CrossRef]] [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Nuevo+Mundo+Mundos+Nuevos&title=El+detestable+pecado+nefando:+Diversidad+sexual+y+control+inquisitorial+en+Venezuela+durante+el+Siglo+XVIII&author=E.+Amodio&publication_year=2012&doi=10.4000/nuevomundo.63177& Google Scholar]]</ref><ref>Bazant M. Bestialismo: El delito nefando, 1800-1856. In: Staples A., Gonzalbo Aizpuru P., editors. Historia de la vida cotidiana en México, v. 4: Bienes y vivencias, el siglo XIX. Fondo de Cultura Económica; México, D. F., México: 2002. pp. 429–462. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Historia+de+la+vida+cotidiana+en+M%C3%A9xico,+v.+4:+Bienes+y+vivencias,+el+siglo+XIX&author=M.+Bazant&publication_year=2002& Google Scholar]]</ref><ref>Vega Umbasia L.A. Pecado y delito en la colonia: La bestialidad como una forma de contravención sexual (1740–1808) Instituto Colombiano de la Cultura Hispánica; Bogotá, Colombia: 1994. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Pecado+y+delito+en+la+colonia:+La+bestialidad+como+una+forma+de+contravenci%C3%B3n+sexual+(1740%E2%80%931808)&author=L.A.+Vega+Umbasia&publication_year=1994& <nowiki>Google Scholar]</nowiki>]</ref>
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| Although awareness of bestiality reinforced the image of the non-Western savage, from the 19th century onwards, it was also used to mark out internal ‘primitives’, members of the population who did not meet the standards of urban life: peasants. In Kinsey’s emblematic work<ref name=":0" /> on sexuality, zoophilia in America was firmly situated in the rural world. For this author, the rural context helped to explain zoophilia, since it is an environment with strong sexual control and little access to women. At no time was it suggested that it might be a voluntary option or a preference: contact with animals was considered as a replacement of sexual relations with women <ref name=":0" />. This same interpretation can be found in research about bestiality in Sweden during the modern age <ref name=":4">Liliequist J. Peasants against nature: Crossing the boundaries between man and animal in seventeenth-and eighteenth-century Sweden. J. Hist. Sex. 1991;1:393–423. [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11622768 PubMed]] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref name=":5">Rydstrom J. Sinners and Citizens: Bestiality and Homosexuality in Sweden, 1880–1950. University Chicago Press; Chicago, IL, USA: 2003. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Sinners+and+Citizens:+Bestiality+and+Homosexuality+in+Sweden,+1880%E2%80%931950&author=J.+Rydstrom&publication_year=2003& Google Scholar]]</ref>. As noted by Miletski<ref>Miletski H. Understanding Bestiality and Zoophilia. East-West Publishing; Bethesda, MD, USA: 2002. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Understanding+Bestiality+and+Zoophilia&author=H.+Miletski&publication_year=2002& Google Scholar]]</ref>, there is a widespread stereotype about zoophilia as the practice of poor and ignorant peasant men. However, what happens in the case of civilised urban societies?out history, from pre-historic times to the present day <ref name=":6">Dekkers M. Deares Pet on Bestiality. Verso; London, UK: 1994. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Deares+Pet+on+Bestiality&author=M.+Dekkers&publication_year=1994& Google Scholar]]</ref><ref name=":7">Miletski H. Is zoophilia a sexual orientation? A study. Anthrozoos. 2005;18:82–97. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Anthrozoos&title=Is+zoophilia+a+sexual+orientation?+A+study&author=H.+Miletski&volume=18&publication_year=2005&pages=82-97& Google Scholar]]</ref>. However, the reasons for rejecting sexuality with animals are not universal and have not remained constant over time.
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| In some cases, such relations have been condemned by law, and also by religion. Hence, Leviticus (20:15) states: “if a man lieth with a beast, he shall surely be put to death: and ye shall slay the beast.” <ref>Beirne P. Confronting Animal Abuse: Law, Criminology, and Human-animal Relationships. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers; Lanham, MD, USA: 2009. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Confronting+Animal+Abuse:+Law,+Criminology,+and+Human-animal+Relationships&author=P.+Beirne&publication_year=2009& Google Scholar]]</ref>. In Europe, until the late 19th century, bestiality was akin to [[sodomy]]. These terms had a clear moral component and were penalised because they were considered a sin and, therefore, in that context, a crime. However, from the 19th century onwards, with the development of psychiatry, there was an important shift in the way these kinds of relations were treated. ‘Perversion’ and ‘immorality’ were transferred from the practice to the person. Behaviours were essentialised and linked to ‘sick’ bodies. As signalled by Foucault <ref name=":2">Foucault M. Histoire de la sexualité, 1: La volonté de savoir. Éditions Gallimard; Paris, France: 1976. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Histoire+de+la+sexualit%C3%A9,+1:+La+volont%C3%A9+de+savoir&author=M.+Foucault&publication_year=1976& Google Scholar]]</ref>, throughout the 19th century, medicine offered the bourgeoisie new ways of legitimising social control over dissidents in general and over sexual dissidents in particular. This process occurred not only with regard to sexuality with animals but also in other non-reproductive sexualities (same sex relations, masturbation, fetishism.)<ref name=":1">Rubin G. Thinking sex: Notes for a radical theory of the politics of sexuality. In: Vance C.S., editor. Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. Routledge & K. Paul; Boston, MA, USA: 1984. pp. 267–319. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Pleasure+and+Danger:+Exploring+Female+Sexuality&author=G.+Rubin&publication_year=1984& Google Scholar]]</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>Weeks J. Sexuality and Its Discontents: Meanings, Myths, and Modern Sexualities. Routledge; London, UK: 1985. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Sexuality+and+Its+Discontents:+Meanings,+Myths,+and+Modern+Sexualities&author=J.+Weeks&publication_year=1985& Google Scholar]]</ref>
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| Medicine and psychiatry brought to light countless peripheral sexualities that were stigmatised as illnesses<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. In 1886, the German psychiatrist Krafft-Ebing drew a distinction between bestiality and [[zooerasty]] or zoophilia. He used the term bestiality for practices aimed exclusively at satisfying sexual desire through the use of other species. Bestiality is explained either by psychopathological conditions or by ‘moral baseness’: excessive sexual desire or the lack of opportunities to satisfy this desire ‘naturally’. The terms zooerasty or zoophilia, on the other hand, refer to pathological behaviours that imply sexual and emotional attraction to animals<ref name=":8">Krafft-Ebing R. Psychopathia Sexualis. A. Davis Campany Publishers; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 1894. [[https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Psychopathia+Sexualis&author=R.+Krafft-Ebing&publication_year=1894& <nowiki>Google Scholar]</nowiki>]</ref>.
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| However, there is another group of cases falling well within the category of bestiality, in which decidedly a pathological basis exists, indicated by heavy taint, constitutional neuroses, impotence for the normal act, impulsive manner of performing the unnatural act.
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