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{{Infobox World Heritage Site
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS        = Khajuraho Group of Monuments
| WHS        = Khajuraho Group of Monuments
| Image      = [[Image:Khajuraho5.jpg|275px|A typical temple at Khajuraho with divine couples. Note lace-like ornamentation on the major and the minor shikharas.]]
| Image      = [[Image:A Khajuraho Temple India.jpg|250px]]
| caption = One of the 20 temples at Khajuraho
| Location = Madhya Pradesh, India
| State Party = [[India]]
| State Party = [[India]]
| Type        = Cultural
| Type        = Cultural
| Criteria    = i, iii
| Criteria    = i, iii
| ID          = 240
| ID          = 240
| Region      = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Region      = [[List of World Heritage Sites in India|World Heritage Site, South Asia]]
| Year        = 1986
| Year        = 1986
| Session    = 10th
| Session    = 10th
| locmapin = India
| relief      = 1
| latitude    =  24.85
| longitude  =  79.93
| Link        = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240
| Link        = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240
}}
}}
The '''Khajuraho Group of Monuments''' are a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India. About {{convert|620|km|mi|0}} southeast of New Delhi, they are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India. <ref name=unesco/> The temples are famous for their ‘‘Nagara’’-style architectural symbolism and their [[erotic sculpture]]s.<ref>Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People, Place, Culture and History, ISBN 978-1405329040, pp 352-353</ref>


The '''Khajuraho Group of Monuments''' in Khajuraho, a town in the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]], located in [[Chhatarpur District]], about {{convert|620|km|mi|0}} southeast of [[New Delhi]], is  one of the most popular [[tourist destinations in India]]. Khajuraho has the largest group of [[medieval]] [[Hindu]] and [[Jain]] [[temple]]s, famous for their [[erotic sculpture]]s.
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 AD, during the Chandella dynasty. Historical records note that Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 20 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers.<ref name=unesco>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 Khajuraho Group of Monuments] UNESCO World Heritage Site</ref> Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.<ref name=ddesai>Devangana Desai (2005), ''Khajuraho'', Oxford University Press, Sixth Print, ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5</ref>


Between 950 and 1150, the [[Chandela]] monarchs built these temples when the [[Tantra|Tantric]] tradition may have been accepted. In the days before the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] conquests, when boys lived in [[Hermitage (religious retreat)|hermitages]], following ''[[brahmacharya]]'' until they became men, they could learn about the world and prepare themselves to become householders through examining these sculptures and the worldly desires they depicted.<ref name="mptourism1">[http://www.mptourism.com/web/explore/destinations/khajurao.aspx Khajuraho]. Mptourism.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.</ref>
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| footer = Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic arts. These constitute about 10% of total art displayed at the monuments.
| image1 = Kamasutra 106.jpg
| image2 = Khajuraho-Lakshmana Temple erotic detal1.JPG
}}
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two schools of [[Hinduism]] and to [[Jainism]] - suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains.<ref name=jfergusson>James Fergusson, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofindiane02ferguoft#page/140/mode/2up/search/khajuraho Norther or Indo-Aryan Style - Khajuraho] History of Indian and Eastern Architecture,  Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London</ref>
 
== Location ==
'''Khajuraho''' is located in the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]], located in [[Chhatarpur District]], about {{convert|620|km|mi|0}} southeast of [[New Delhi]]. The monuments are located in a small town also known as Khajuraho,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns  (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> with a population of 19,282.
 
{{Location map | India Madhya Pradesh
| alt    = Location in Madhya Pradesh
| float = left
| caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh
| label = Khajuraho
| lat_deg = 24.85
| lon_deg = 79.93
}}
Khajuraho is served by [[Khajuraho Airport]] (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra and Mumbai.<ref>[http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/khajuraho_generalinfo.jsp Khajuraho airport] AAI, Govt of India</ref> The site is also linked by Indian Railways service, with the station approximately six kilometer distant from the monuments entrance.
 
The monuments are about 10 kilometers off the east-west [[National Highway 75 (India)|National Highway 75]], and about 50 kilometers from the city of Chhatarpur, that is connected to Bhopal - the state capital - by the SW-NE running [[National Highway 86 (India)|National Highway 86]].
 
== History ==
The Khajuraho group of monuments were built during the rule of Rajput Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.<ref name=gghurye>G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-24</ref> Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga, with the largest and currently most famous surviving temples built with King Dhanga as patron. The temple inscriptions suggest many of the temples were complete between 970 to 1020 AD, with smaller shrines completed in decades thereafter.<ref name=jfergusson/>


The name Khajuraho, ancient "Kharjuravāhaka", is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] words ''kharjura'' = [[date palm]] and ''vāhaka'' = "one who carries". Locals living in the Khajuraho village always knew about and kept up the temples as best as they could. They were pointed out to the English in the late 19th century when the jungles had taken a toll on the monuments. In the 19th century, British engineer T.S. Burt arrived in the area, followed by General [[Alexander Cunningham]]. Cunningham put Khajuraho on the world map when he explored the site on behalf of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] and described what he found in glowing terms. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has been listed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], and is considered to be one of the [[Times of India's list of seven wonders of India|"seven wonders" of India]].
The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba,<ref>also called Erakana</ref> the capital of Chandela dynasty. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been called Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.<ref name=mitra>Mitra (1977), The early rulers of Khajuraho, ISBN 978-8120819979</ref>


== Town ==
Khajuraho were mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Arabic historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 AD; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti.<ref>J. Banerjea (1960), Khajuraho, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. 2-3, pp 43-47</ref> The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.<ref name=mitra/> Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century, after Delhi Sultanate attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak. [[Ibn Battuta]], the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 AD, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them “Kajarra”<ref>phonetically translated from Arabic sometimes as “Kajwara”</ref><ref>Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)</ref> as follows:
{{Infobox settlement
 
| name                   = Khajuraho
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|...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies. And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.
| native_name_lang        =
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|[[Ibn Battuta]]|about 1335 AD, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell<ref>Arthur Cotterell (2011), Asia: A Concise History, Wiley, ISBN 978-0470825044, pp 184-185</ref>
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| pushpin_map            = India Madhya Pradesh
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| latNS                  = N
| longd                  = 79.93
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| subdivision_name        = India
| subdivision_type1      = State
| subdivision_name1      = Madhya Pradesh
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| subdivision_name2      = [[Chhatarpur district|Chhatarpur]]
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| elevation_m            = 283
| population_total        = 19,282
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[[File:A ruin, pillars at Khajuraho, India.jpg|thumb|left|Till the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu kings and featured 85 temples. Central India was seized by Delhi Sultanate in 13th century. Under Muslim rule some temples were destroyed and rest left in neglect. Ruins of some old temples (above) are still visible.]]
Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties through the 18th century, during which some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect.<ref name=jfergusson/><ref name=gghurye/> In 1495 AD, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho.<ref>Michael D. Willis, An Introduction to the Historical Geography of Gopakṣetra, Daśārṇa, and Jejākadeśa, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 51, No. 2 (1988), pp. 271-278; See also K.R. Qanungo (1965), Sher Shah and his times, Orient Longmans, {{oclc|175212}}, pp 423-427</ref> The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims.<ref name=trudyking>Trudy King et al., Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places, ISBN 978-1884964046, Routledge, pp 468-470</ref><ref>Alain Daniélou (2011), A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-1594770296, pp 221-227</ref> Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples. In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience.<ref>Louise Nicholson (2007), India, National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426201448, see Chapter on Khajuraho</ref> Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimmage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.<ref>Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi</ref>


'''Khajuraho''' is a town in the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]], located in [[Chhatarpur District]], about {{convert|620|km|mi|0}} southeast of [[New Delhi]], the capital city of [[India]] and about 63 km from an important rail head Mahoba, Uttar Pradesh. According to the 2001 India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns  (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Khajuraho has a population of 19,282. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. The town has an average literacy rate of 53%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 62%, and female literacy is 43%. In Khajuraho, 19% of the population is under 6 years of age. Khajuraho is located at {{Coord|24.85|N|79.93|E|}}<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Khajuraho.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Khajuraho]. Fallingrain.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.</ref> and has an average elevation of 283&nbsp;metres (928&nbsp;feet).
;Nomenclature
The name Khajuraho, or "Kharjuravāhaka", is derived from ancient [[Sanskrit]] (''kharjura'', खर्जूर means [[date palm]],<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=kharjUra&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 kharjUra] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''vāhaka'', वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=vAhaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 vAhaka] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>). Historical legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).<ref name=ddesai7/>


Khajuraho is served by [[Khajuraho Airport]] and there is a railway station approximately six km by car from the town centre.
Cunningham’s systematic documentation work and nomenclature in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use. <ref>Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi</ref> He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.<ref name=rsingh>Rana Singh (2007), Landscape of sacred territory of Khajuraho, in City Society and Planning (Editors: Thakur, Pomeroy, et al), Volume 2, ISBN 978-8180694585, Chapter 18</ref>


== History ==
Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedaranath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja <ref name=spunja>Shobita Punja (1992), Divine Ecstasy - The Story of Khajuraho, Viking, New Delhi, ISBN 978-0670840274</ref> has proposed the theory that the origin reflects the Hindu mythology that Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.
In the 27th Century of Kali Yuga the Mlechcha invaders started attacking Northern India, some [[Bargujar]] moved eastward to central India; they ruled over the Northeastern region of [[Rajasthan]], called [[Dhundhar]], and were referred to as [[Dhundhel]] or [[Dhundhela]] in ancient times, for the region they governed. Later on they called themselves [[Chandela]]s; those who were in the ruling class having [[gotra]] [[Kashyap]] were definitely all Bargujars; they were vassals of Gurjara – Pratihara empire of North India, which lasted from 500 CE to 1300 CE and at its peak the major monuments were built. The Bargujars also built the [[Kalinjar]] fort and [[Neelkanth Mahadev temple]], similar to one at [[Sariska National Park]], and [[Baroli]], being [[Shiva]]  
 
Matangeshvara temple is the only temple among Khajuraho group of monuments that remains in active use.
 
==Description==
[[File:Architecture of the Khajuraho temples.jpg|thumb|360px|Sections and orientation of Khajuraho temples.]]
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area.<ref name=rsingh/> The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples to house gods, where gods love to play.<ref name=rsingh/>
 
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples - Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river).<ref>Ibn Battuta in his 1335 AD memoirs on Delhi Sultanate mentioned the temples to be near a mile long lake, modern water bodies are much smaller and separate lagoons; Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)</ref> The local legends state that the temple complex has 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.<ref name=rsingh/><ref>The number 64 is considered sacred in [[Hindu temple]] design and very common design basis; it is symbolic as it is both a square of 8 and a cube of 4.</ref>
 
All temples, except<ref name=rsingh/> one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. <ref name=spunja/> The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - [[dharma]], [[kama]], [[artha]] and [[moksha]].
 
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthanks.<ref name=rsingh/> For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
 
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design.<ref>Brahma temple is 19 feet square; Kandariya Mahadev has a four fused square grid; Matangeshvara temple is a 64 grid square; etc. See G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-25; and V.A. Smith (1879), “Observations on some Chandel Antiquities”, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 48, Part 1, pp 291-297</ref>  Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or ‘‘trilokinatha’’, and five cosmic substances or ‘‘panchbhuteshvara’’.<ref name=rsingh/> The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution.<ref name=spunja/>
 
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture.<ref>D Desai (1996), The religious imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, ISBN 978-8190018418</ref> The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Agamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.<ref>Bettina Bäumer, A review, [[Artibus Asiae]], Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1999), pp. 138-140</ref>
 
The [[Beejamandal]] temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the [[Grahpati Kokalla inscription]].{{cn}}
 
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.<ref name=spunja/> It is another square grid temple, with a large {{convert|2.5|m|ft}} high and {{convert|1.1|m|ft}} diameter lingam, placed on a {{convert|7.6|m|ft}} diameter platform.<ref name=rsingh/>
 
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a sikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet.<ref name=rsingh/><ref name=gghurye/>
 
;Jaina temples
 
The Jain temples are located on southeast section of the temple site.<ref name=jfergusson>James Fergusson, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofindiane02ferguoft#page/50/mode/2up/search/khajuraho Jaina Architecture - Khajuraho] History of Indian and Eastern Architecture,  Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London</ref> Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
 
===Architecture of the temples===
[[File:Plan of Kandariya Mahadeva temple.jpg|thumb|360px|left|The layout plan of Kandriya Mahadeva Khajuraho temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.]]
Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called ''vastu-purusha-mandala''.<ref>Michael W. Meister, Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), pp. 266-296</ref> This design plan has three important components - ''Mandala'' means circle, ''Purusha'' is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while ''Vastu'' means the dwelling structure.<ref name=sl6869>Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69</ref>
 
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The sikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3</ref>
 
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.<ref name=stellakvol1>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3</ref> The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas. <ref name=mmgeometry>Michael Meister (1983), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3249613 Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples], Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp 266-296</ref>
 
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires. The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
 
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width = 200
| footer = Khajuraho temples use the 8x8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found in [[Hindu temple]]s. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Sikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.<ref name=stellakvol1/><ref>Michael W. Meister, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Mar., 2006), pp 26-49</ref>
| image1 = 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg
| image2 = Hindu temple Spire design principle concentric circles squares Vastu Purusa Mandala without label.svg
}}
The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is unique in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas.<ref>Devangana Desai, ''Khajuraho'', Oxford University Press Paperback (Sixth impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5</ref> This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples.<ref>Rian et al (2007), Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho, Building and Environment, Vol 42, Issue 12, pp 4093-4107, {{doi|10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028}}</ref> Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.<ref name=ddesai7>Devangana Desai (1996), [http://www.learn.columbia.edu/indianart/pdf/khajuraho_desai.pdf Chapter 7 - Puns and Enigmatic Language in Sculpture] in The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Columbia University Archives</ref>
 
All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.
 
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 200
| width2 = 200
| footer = An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Sikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares principle.
| image1 = India-5716 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
| image2 = A Khajuraho Temple ceiling design.jpg
}}
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called ''Shikhara'' (or ''Vimana'', Spire).<ref name=sl6869/> Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Sikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.<ref name=stellakvol1/>


The city was the cultural capital of Chandel Rajputs, a Hindu dynasty that ruled this part of India from the 10 to 12th centuries. The political capital of the Chandelas was [[Kalinjar]]. The Khajuraho temples were built over a span of 200 years, from 950 to 1150. The Chandela capital was moved to [[Mahoba]] after this time, but Khajuraho continued to flourish for some time. Khajuraho has no forts because the Chandel Kings never lived in their cultural capital.
In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity.<ref name=stellakvol1/> The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called ''pradakshina''.<ref name=sl6869/>


The whole area was enclosed by a wall with eight originates, each flanked by two golden palm trees. There were originally over 85 Hindu temples, of which only 25 now stand in a reasonable state of preservation, scattered over an area of about {{convert|20|km2|sqmi|0}}. The erotic sculptures were crafted by Chandella artisans. The temples, maintained by the locals, were pointed out to the English in the late 19th century when the [[jungle]]s had taken a toll on the monuments. Today, the temples serve as fine examples of Indian architectural styles that have gained popularity due to their explicit depiction of sexual life during medieval times.You can see the erotic sculptures on [[Kandariya Mahadev Temple]].
Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This symbolic repetition is common in Hindu temples found all over India,<ref name="Trivedi, K. 1989">Trivedi, K. (1989). Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe. The Visual Computer, 5(4), 243-258</ref> each distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.<ref name=susanlchap4>Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter 4</ref>


== Architecture ==
== Construction ==
[[Image:Khajuraho-Lakshmana temple.JPG|thumb|Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, a [[panchayatana (temple)|panchayatana]] temple.  Two of the four secondary shrines can be seen. [[commons:Image:Khajuraho tempel india.jpg|Another view]] ]]
[[File:Khajuraho Devi Jagadambi Temple 2010.jpg|thumb|Devi Jagadambi Temple]]
[[File:Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Duladeo Temple]]]]
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.


The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with [[mortise and tenon]] joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons.<ref>"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History channel</ref>
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with [[mortise and tenon]] joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons.<ref>"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History channel</ref>


The [[Saraswati]] temple on the campus of the [[Birla Institute of Technology and Science]] in [[Pilani]], India, is modeled after the Khajuraho temples.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.
 
While recording the television show ''[[Lost Worlds (TV series)|Lost Worlds]]'' (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved.<ref>"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History Channel</ref> Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.<ref>Lehner, Mark (1997) ''The Complete Pyramids'', London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225 </ref> They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.


== Chronology ==
== Chronology ==
The temples have been assigned the following historical sequence by Dr. Kanhaiyalal Agrawal.<ref>Khajuraho, Kanhaiyalal Agrawal, Macmillan India, 1980 (in Hindi)</ref>
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. In each group, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.
 
The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.
 
Kandarya Mahadeva temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.
 
;Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years


{| class="wikitable sortable"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
  | '''Sequence'''
  |-
  | '''Modern name'''
! Sequence
  | '''Original Deity'''
  ! Temple name
  | '''Note'''
  ! Deity
  ! Completed by<br>(AD)<ref>From inscription or estimated from other evidence</ref><ref name=rsingh/>
! class="unsortable"| Image
  |-
  |-
  | 1
  | 1
  | Chausath Yogini
  | Chausath Yogini
  | 64 [[Yogini]]s
  | Devi, 64 [[Yogini]]s
  | Est. 9th century
  | 885
| [[File:Khajuraho,Chausath-Yogini-Tempel2.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 2
  | 2
  | Brahma
  | Brahma
  | [[Brahma]]
  | Vishnu
  | Eastern group
| 925
  |
  |-
  |-
  | 3
  | 3
  | Lalgun Mahadev
  | Lalgun Mahadev
  | [[Shiva]]
  | [[Shiva]]
  | Contemp to 2
  | 900
| [[File:India-5696 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 4
  | 4
  | Matangeshwar
  | Matangeshwar
  | Shiva
  | Shiva
  | In active worship
  | 1000
| [[File:India-5772 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 5
  | 5
  | [[Varaha Temple, Khajuraho|Varaha]]
  | [[Varaha Temple, Khajuraho|Varaha]]
  | Varaha
  | Vishnu
  |
  | 950
| [[File:India-5595 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 6
  | 6
  | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho India|Lakshmana]]
  | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho India|Lakshmana]]
  | [[Vaikuntha Vishnu]]
  | [[Vaikuntha Vishnu]]
  | Lakshavarma Inscription
  | 939
| [[File:India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 7
  | 7
  | Parshvanath
  | Parshvanath
  | Adinath
  | Parshvanath, [[Jain temples of Khajuraho|Jain Tirthank]]
| Pahil inscription 954 AD, [[Jain temples of Khajuraho|Jain Compound]]
| 954
| [[File:Khajuraho Parshvanath temple 2010.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 8
  | 8
  | Vishvanath
  | Vishvanath
  | Shiva
  | Shiva
  | Dhanga inscription Sam 1059
  | 999
| [[File:India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 9
  | 9
  | [[Devi Jagadambi Temple|Devi Jagadambi]]
  | [[Devi Jagadambi Temple|Devi Jagadambi]]
  | Initially [[Vishnu]] but currently [[Parvati]]
  | Devi, [[Parvati]]
|
| 1023
| [[File:Khajuraho Devi Jagadambi Temple 2010.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 10
  | 10
  | Chitragupta
  | Chitragupta
  | [[Chitragupta]]
  | Sun, [[Chitragupta]]
  |
  | 1023
| [[File:India-5707 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 11
  | 11
  | [[Kandariya Mahadeva]]
  | [[Kandariya Mahadeva]] (Largest temple)
  | Shiva
  | Shiva
  | Largest
  | 1029
| [[File:Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 12
  | 12
  | [[Vamana Temple, Khajuraho India|Vamana]]
  | [[Vamana Temple, Khajuraho India|Vamana]]
  | [[Vamana]]
  | Vishnu, [[Vamana]]
  | Eastern Group
  | 1062
| [[File:Khajuraho Vaman Temple 2010.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 13
  | 13
  | [[Rishabha (Jain tirthankar)|Adinath]]
  | [[Rishabha (Jain tirthankar)|Rishabha]]
  | Jina
  | Adinath, Jain Tirthank
  | Jain compound
| 1027
  | [[File:Adinath Jain Temple Khajuraho 12.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 14
  | 14
  | [[Javari Temple, Khajuraho India|Javari]]
  | [[Javari Temple, Khajuraho India|Javeri]]
  | Vishnu
  | Vishnu
  | Eastern group
  | 1090
| [[File:Javari Temple, Khajuraho.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 15
  | 15
  | Chaturbhuja
  | Chaturbhuja
  | Vishnu
  | Vishnu
  | Southern
  | 1110
| [[File:Khajuraho Chaturbhuja Temple.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 16
  | 16
  | [[Duladeo Temple|Duladeo]]
  | [[Duladeo Temple|Duladeo]] (Duladeva)
  | Shiva
  | Shiva
  | South end
  | 1125
  |-
| [[File:Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010 wb.jpg|100px]]
  |-
  |-
  | 17
  | 17
  | Ghantai
  | Ghantai
  | Jina
  | Jain Tirthank
  | Only some columns remaining
  | 960
|
|-
| 18
| Vishnu-Garuda
| Vishnu
| 1000
|
|-
| 19
| Ganesha
| Shiva
| 1000
| [[File:Khajuraho 126.jpg|100px]]
|-
| 20
| Hanuman
| Hanuman
| 922<ref>Cunningham in Archeological Survey Reports noted that one of two Hanuman statues bears an inscription of 868 AD</ref>
| [[File:Hanuman Inscription at Khajuraho.jpg|100px]]
|-
| 21
| Mahishasuramardini
| Devi
| 995
| [[File:Khajuraho India, Lakshman Temple, Sculpture 10.JPG|100px]]
| -
  |}
  |}


The [[Beejamandal]] temple is still under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the [[Grahpati Kokalla inscription]].
== Arts and sculpture ==
 
{{multiple image
== Statues and carvings ==
| direction = horizontal
The Khajuraho temples contain sexual or [[erotic art]] outside the temple or near the deities. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. It has been suggested that these suggest [[Tantric sexuality|tantric sexual]] practices. Some 10% of the carvings contain sexual themes and those reportedly do not depict deities but rather sexual activities between people. The rest depict the everyday life. For example, those depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians, potters, farmers, and other folk. The mundane scenes are all at some distance from the temple deities. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities.<ref>[http://www.liveindia.com/khajuraho/8a.html "Khajuraho"]. Liveindia.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.</ref>
| align = left
 
| width = 160
Another perspective of these carvings is presented by [[James McConnachie]]. In his history of the ''Kamasutra'',([http://planetreports.blogspot.in/2013/07/kamasutra-book-pdf.html KamaSutra Ebook Download]) McConnachie describes the zesty 10% of the Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art":
| footer = The temples display over 100 sexual-themed sculpture.
| image1 = India.Khajuraho.jpg
| image2 = Khajuraho 148.jpg
}}
The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or [[erotic art]] outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be [[Tantric sexuality|tantric sexual]] practices.<ref>Rabe (2000), Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples, Tantra in Practice (Editor: David White), ISBN 978-8120817784, Chapter 25, pp 434-446</ref> Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating [[kama]] as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples.<ref name=ddesai/><ref>See:
*Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the Religious Arts, ISBN 978-0304707393, Bloomsbury;
*Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, ISBN ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pp 92-96;
*Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549, pp 101-119</ref> James McConnachie, in his history of the ''Kamasutra'', describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art":
<blockquote>"Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy ''apsaras'' run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked ''maithunas'', or lovemaking couples."</blockquote>
<blockquote>"Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy ''apsaras'' run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked ''maithunas'', or lovemaking couples."</blockquote>


<gallery widths = "160px" heights = "150px" >
{{multiple image
Image:Kandariya mahadeva temple.jpg| Kandariya Mahadeva temple
| direction = vertical
Image:Khajuraho 043A.jpg | Chaturbuj Temple
| align =
Image:Lakshman Temple 3.jpg | Lakshman temple
| width = 200
Image:Lakshman Temple 4.jpg | Lakshman temple
| footer = Over 90% of the art work at the temple is about daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture.
Image:Lakshman Temple 5.jpg | Lakshman temple
| image1 = India-5692 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
Image:Lakshman Temple 6.jpg | Lakshman temple
| image2 = Brown bodies.JPG
Image:Lakshman Temple 8.jpg | Lakshman temple
}}
Image:Lakshman Temple 9.jpg | Lakshman temple
The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities; <ref>[http://www.liveindia.com/khajuraho/8a.html "Khajuraho"]. Liveindia.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.</ref> however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings.<ref> Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549</ref> The rest depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various values important in Hindu tradition.<ref name=ddesai/> For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era. These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in [[Hindu temple]]s.
Image:20120303 erotic zoophilia Lakshmana Temple Khajuraho India (panoramic version).jpg|Erotic scene with a horse - Lakshman temple
Image:Khajurahosculpture.jpg|A [[temple]] [[relief]] at [[Khajuraho]] in [[Tourism in Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]] features a couple in a sexual embrace with a man and a woman masturbating to either side.
Image:Khajuraho outside wall.jpg | Outside wall of one of the temples
</gallery>


While the sexual nature of these carvings have caused the site to be referred to as the ''Kamasutra'' temple, they do not illustrate the meticulously described positions. Neither do they express the philosophy of Vatsyayana's famous sutra. As "a strange union of Tantrism and fertility motifs, with a heavy dose of magic" they belief a document which focuses on pleasure rather than procreation. That is, fertility is moot.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| align =
| width1 = 100
| width2 = 119
| footer = Carvings from Khajuraho temples.
| image1 = 37. Khajuraho Yamuna museum.jpg
| image2 = India-5603 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
}}
The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century AD. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa.<ref>L.H. Gray, Journal of American Society, Vol. 27</ref><ref>Sten Konow</ref> Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples.<ref name=ddesai7/>


The strategically placed sculptures are "symbolical-magical diagrams, or ''yantras''" designed to appease malevolent spirits. This ''alamkara'' (ornamentation) expresses sophisticated artistic transcendence over the natural; sexual images imply a virile, thus powerful, ruler.<ref>{{cite book | author=McConnachie, James | title=The Book of Love, the Story of the Kamasutra | publisher=Metropolitan Press | year=2005 | pages=46–47}}</ref>
== Tourism and cultural events ==
The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts : the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the temple history and architecture.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/indore/Tourists-to-Khajuraho-will-now-have-an-audio-compass/articleshow/9733005.cms Tourists to Khajuraho will now have an audio compass] The Times of India (August 25 2011)</ref>


Between 950 and 1150, the Chandela monarchs built these temples when the [[Tantra|Tantric]] tradition may have been accepted. In the days before the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] conquests, when boys lived in [[Hermitage (religious retreat)|hermitages]], following ''[[brahmacharya]]'' until they became men, they could learn about the world and prepare themselves to become householders through examining these sculptures and the worldly desires they depicted.<ref name="mptourism1"/>
The [[Khajuraho Dance Festival]] is held every year in February.<ref>[http://khajurahodancefestival.com/ Khajuraho Festival of Dances]</ref> It features various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.


While recording the television show ''[[Lost Worlds (TV series)|Lost Worlds]]'' (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a contemporary stonemason and sculptor gave his expert opinion and forensically examined the tool marks and construction techniques involved in creating the stunning stonework at the sites. He also recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved.<ref>"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History Channel</ref> Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.<ref>Lehner, Mark (1997) ''The Complete Pyramids'', London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225 </ref> These temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
The Khajuraho temple complex offers a light and sound show every evening. The first show is in [[English language]] and the second one in [[Hindi]]. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex, and has received mixed reviews.


== Tourism and cultural events ==
The Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the [[Khajuraho railway station]], with tourist officers to provide information for Khajuraho visitors.
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2012}}
The Khajuraho temple complex offers a professional  light and sound show every evening. The first show is in [[English language]] and the second one in [[Hindi]]. The show is about an hour long and covers the history, philosophy and the art of sculpting of these temples. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex.
 
The [[Khajuraho Dance Festival]], held every year in the first week of February (1st to 7th), is an opportunity for visitors to experience various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.
 
The M P Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the [[Khajuraho railway station]] (which is 9&nbsp;km away from the city), with helpful tourist officers to guide the travelers.
The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts : the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the historical data related to the temples.


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Hindu temple]]
* [[Bambar Baini]] the famous temple located on a hill in [[Laundi]].
* [[Bambar Baini]] the famous temple located on a hill in [[Laundi]].
* [[Kandariya Mahadeva]]
* [[Kandariya Mahadeva]]
Line 247: Line 340:
* [[Bandhavgarh National Park]]
* [[Bandhavgarh National Park]]
* [[Badami Chalukya architecture]], [[Western Chalukya architecture]]
* [[Badami Chalukya architecture]], [[Western Chalukya architecture]]
Nearby sites:
* [[Panna National Park]]
* [[Ken River]]


== References ==
== References ==
Line 260: Line 357:
{{Commons category|Khajuraho group of monuments}}
{{Commons category|Khajuraho group of monuments}}
{{Wikivoyage-inline|Khajuraho}}
{{Wikivoyage-inline|Khajuraho}}
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/mp/71049.htm Chalukya temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh][http://www.kamat.com/search/?search=Khajuraho&B1=Search]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 Khajuraho Group of Monuments] UNESCO
* [http://www.trodly.com/destination/1929/khajuraho Khajuraho Travel Info & other attractions]
* [http://indiaouting.com/madhya-pradesh/khajuraho/ Images of Khajuraho Sculptures]
* [http://asibhopal.nic.in/monument/chhatarpur.html Archeological Survey of India, Bhopal Division]
* [http://asibhopal.nic.in/monument/chhatarpur.html Archeological Survey of India, Bhopal Division]


Revision as of 15:58, 17 August 2014

"Khajuraho" redirects here. For for the town in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India, see Khajuraho, Rajasthan.
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
UNESCO World Heritage Site
One of the 20 temples at Khajuraho
LocationMadhya Pradesh, India
CriteriaCultural: i, iii
Reference240
Inscription1986 (10th session)

The Khajuraho Group of Monuments are a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India. About 620 kilometres (385 mi) southeast of New Delhi, they are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India. [1] The temples are famous for their ‘‘Nagara’’-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.[2]

Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 AD, during the Chandella dynasty. Historical records note that Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 20 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers.[1] Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.[3]

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two schools of Hinduism and to Jainism - suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains.[4]

Location

Khajuraho is located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, located in Chhatarpur District, about 620 kilometres (385 mi) southeast of New Delhi. The monuments are located in a small town also known as Khajuraho,[5] with a population of 19,282.

Script error: No such module "Location map". Khajuraho is served by Khajuraho Airport (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra and Mumbai.[6] The site is also linked by Indian Railways service, with the station approximately six kilometer distant from the monuments entrance.

The monuments are about 10 kilometers off the east-west National Highway 75, and about 50 kilometers from the city of Chhatarpur, that is connected to Bhopal - the state capital - by the SW-NE running National Highway 86.

History

The Khajuraho group of monuments were built during the rule of Rajput Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.[7] Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga, with the largest and currently most famous surviving temples built with King Dhanga as patron. The temple inscriptions suggest many of the temples were complete between 970 to 1020 AD, with smaller shrines completed in decades thereafter.[4]

The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba,[8] the capital of Chandela dynasty. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been called Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.[9]

Khajuraho were mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Arabic historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 AD; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti.[10] The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.[9] Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century, after Delhi Sultanate attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 AD, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them “Kajarra”[11][12] as follows:

Template:Bquote

File:A ruin, pillars at Khajuraho, India.jpg
Till the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu kings and featured 85 temples. Central India was seized by Delhi Sultanate in 13th century. Under Muslim rule some temples were destroyed and rest left in neglect. Ruins of some old temples (above) are still visible.

Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties through the 18th century, during which some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect.[4][7] In 1495 AD, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho.[13] The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims.[14][15] Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples. In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience.[16] Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimmage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.[17]

Nomenclature

The name Khajuraho, or "Kharjuravāhaka", is derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura, खर्जूर means date palm,[18] and vāhaka, वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer[19]). Historical legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).[20]

Cunningham’s systematic documentation work and nomenclature in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use. [21] He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.[22]

Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedaranath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja [23] has proposed the theory that the origin reflects the Hindu mythology that Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.

Matangeshvara temple is the only temple among Khajuraho group of monuments that remains in active use.

Description

Sections and orientation of Khajuraho temples.

The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area.[22] The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples to house gods, where gods love to play.[22]

The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples - Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river).[24] The local legends state that the temple complex has 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.[22][25]

All temples, except[22] one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. [23] The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama, artha and moksha.

Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthanks.[22] For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.

An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design.[26] Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or ‘‘trilokinatha’’, and five cosmic substances or ‘‘panchbhuteshvara’’.[22] The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution.[23]

The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture.[27] The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Agamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.[28]

The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.[citation needed]

Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.[23] It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres (3.6 ft) diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres (25 ft) diameter platform.[22]

The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a sikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet.[22][7]

Jaina temples

The Jain temples are located on southeast section of the temple site.[4] Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.

Architecture of the temples

The layout plan of Kandriya Mahadeva Khajuraho temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.

Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.[29] This design plan has three important components - Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.[30]

The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The sikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[31]

The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[32] The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas. [33]

Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires. The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is unique in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas.[34] This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples.[35] Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.[20]

All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire).[30] Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Sikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.[32]

In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity.[32] The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[30]

Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This symbolic repetition is common in Hindu temples found all over India,[36] each distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.[37]

Construction

The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.

The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons.[38]

The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.

While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved.[39] Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.[40] They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.

Chronology

The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. In each group, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.

The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.

Kandarya Mahadeva temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.

Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years
Sequence Temple name Deity Completed by
(AD)[41][22] 		Image
1 Chausath Yogini Devi, 64 Yoginis 885 File:Khajuraho,Chausath-Yogini-Tempel2.jpg
2 Brahma Vishnu 925
3 Lalgun Mahadev Shiva 900 File:India-5696 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
4 Matangeshwar Shiva 1000 File:India-5772 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
5 Varaha Vishnu 950 File:India-5595 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
6 Lakshmana Vaikuntha Vishnu 939 File:India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
7 Parshvanath Parshvanath, Jain Tirthank 954 File:Khajuraho Parshvanath temple 2010.jpg
8 Vishvanath Shiva 999 File:India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
9 Devi Jagadambi Devi, Parvati 1023
10 Chitragupta Sun, Chitragupta 1023 File:India-5707 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
11 Kandariya Mahadeva (Largest temple) Shiva 1029 File:Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India.jpg
12 Vamana Vishnu, Vamana 1062
13 Rishabha Adinath, Jain Tirthank 1027
14 Javeri Vishnu 1090 File:Javari Temple, Khajuraho.jpg
15 Chaturbhuja Vishnu 1110
16 Duladeo (Duladeva) Shiva 1125 File:Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010 wb.jpg
17 Ghantai Jain Tirthank 960
18 Vishnu-Garuda Vishnu 1000
19 Ganesha Shiva 1000 File:Khajuraho 126.jpg
20 Hanuman Hanuman 922[42]
21 Mahishasuramardini Devi 995 File:Khajuraho India, Lakshman Temple, Sculpture 10.JPG -

Arts and sculpture

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be tantric sexual practices.[43] Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples.[3][44] James McConnachie, in his history of the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art":

"Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking couples."

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities; [45] however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings.[46] The rest depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various values important in Hindu tradition.[3] For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era. These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century AD. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa.[47][48] Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples.[20]

Tourism and cultural events

The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts : the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the temple history and architecture.[49]

The Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every year in February.[50] It features various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.

The Khajuraho temple complex offers a light and sound show every evening. The first show is in English language and the second one in Hindi. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex, and has received mixed reviews.

The Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the Khajuraho railway station, with tourist officers to provide information for Khajuraho visitors.

See also

Nearby sites:

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Khajuraho Group of Monuments UNESCO World Heritage Site
  2. ↑ Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People, Place, Culture and History, ISBN 978-1405329040, pp 352-353
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Devangana Desai (2005), Khajuraho, Oxford University Press, Sixth Print, ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 James Fergusson, Norther or Indo-Aryan Style - Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "jfergusson" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
  6. ↑ Khajuraho airport AAI, Govt of India
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-24
  8. ↑ also called Erakana
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mitra (1977), The early rulers of Khajuraho, ISBN 978-8120819979
  10. ↑ J. Banerjea (1960), Khajuraho, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. 2-3, pp 43-47
  11. ↑ phonetically translated from Arabic sometimes as “Kajwara”
  12. ↑ Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
  13. ↑ Michael D. Willis, An Introduction to the Historical Geography of Gopakṣetra, Daśārṇa, and Jejākadeśa, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 51, No. 2 (1988), pp. 271-278; See also K.R. Qanungo (1965), Sher Shah and his times, Orient Longmans, OCLC 175212, pp 423-427
  14. ↑ Trudy King et al., Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places, ISBN 978-1884964046, Routledge, pp 468-470
  15. ↑ Alain Daniélou (2011), A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-1594770296, pp 221-227
  16. ↑ Louise Nicholson (2007), India, National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426201448, see Chapter on Khajuraho
  17. ↑ Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi
  18. ↑ kharjUra Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  19. ↑ vAhaka Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Devangana Desai (1996), Chapter 7 - Puns and Enigmatic Language in Sculpture in The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Columbia University Archives
  21. ↑ Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 Rana Singh (2007), Landscape of sacred territory of Khajuraho, in City Society and Planning (Editors: Thakur, Pomeroy, et al), Volume 2, ISBN 978-8180694585, Chapter 18
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Shobita Punja (1992), Divine Ecstasy - The Story of Khajuraho, Viking, New Delhi, ISBN 978-0670840274
  24. ↑ Ibn Battuta in his 1335 AD memoirs on Delhi Sultanate mentioned the temples to be near a mile long lake, modern water bodies are much smaller and separate lagoons; Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
  25. ↑ The number 64 is considered sacred in Hindu temple design and very common design basis; it is symbolic as it is both a square of 8 and a cube of 4.
  26. ↑ Brahma temple is 19 feet square; Kandariya Mahadev has a four fused square grid; Matangeshvara temple is a 64 grid square; etc. See G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-25; and V.A. Smith (1879), “Observations on some Chandel Antiquities”, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 48, Part 1, pp 291-297
  27. ↑ D Desai (1996), The religious imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, ISBN 978-8190018418
  28. ↑ Bettina Bäumer, A review, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1999), pp. 138-140
  29. ↑ Michael W. Meister, Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), pp. 266-296
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69
  31. ↑ Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
  33. ↑ Michael Meister (1983), Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp 266-296
  34. ↑ Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, Oxford University Press Paperback (Sixth impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
  35. ↑ Rian et al (2007), Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho, Building and Environment, Vol 42, Issue 12, pp 4093-4107, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
  36. ↑ Trivedi, K. (1989). Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe. The Visual Computer, 5(4), 243-258
  37. ↑ Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter 4
  38. ↑ "Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History channel
  39. ↑ "Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History Channel
  40. ↑ Lehner, Mark (1997) The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225
  41. ↑ From inscription or estimated from other evidence
  42. ↑ Cunningham in Archeological Survey Reports noted that one of two Hanuman statues bears an inscription of 868 AD
  43. ↑ Rabe (2000), Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples, Tantra in Practice (Editor: David White), ISBN 978-8120817784, Chapter 25, pp 434-446
  44. ↑ See:
    • Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the Religious Arts, ISBN 978-0304707393, Bloomsbury;
    • Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, ISBN ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pp 92-96;
    • Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549, pp 101-119
  45. ↑ "Khajuraho". Liveindia.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.
  46. ↑ Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549
  47. ↑ L.H. Gray, Journal of American Society, Vol. 27
  48. ↑ Sten Konow
  49. ↑ Tourists to Khajuraho will now have an audio compass The Times of India (August 25 2011)
  50. ↑ Khajuraho Festival of Dances

Further reading

  • L. A. Narain, Khajuraho: Temples of Ecstasy. New Delhi: Lustre Press (1986)
  • Phani Kant Mishra, Khajuraho: With Latest Discoveries, Sundeep Prakashan (2001) ISBN 81-7574-101-5
  • Devangana Desai, The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, Franco-Indian Research P. Ltd. (1996) ISBN 81-900184-1-8
  • Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, Oxford University Press Paperback (Sixth impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5

External links

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