Rabies

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KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self 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File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS File:Dream self suck.mp4KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KYS ZOOPHILES KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL ANIMAL FUCKERS KILL ALL 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At least two treatment schemes have been proposed to treat rabies after the onset of disease, namely the Milwaukee Protocol and the Recife Protocol. The Milwaukee Protocol initially came into use in 2003, when it was tested on Jeanna Giese. Subsequently, the teenager from Wisconsin became the first person known to have survived rabies without preventive treatments before symptom onset. The basic idea is to put a person into a chemically induced coma and to use antiviral medications to prevent fatal dysautonomia. However, the overall protocol is complex. The sixth version of the protocol last updated in 2018 consists of 17 pages with 22 steps of treatment, detailed monitoring and a timeline of expected complications.[1] The Recife Protocol follows the same principle but differs in details like termination of sedation and supplementary medication.[2] Some experts assessed the Milwaukee Protocol as an ineffective treatment with concerns related to the costs and ethics. Yet a study published in 2020 found 38 case reports for the Milwaukee Protocol and only one for the Recife Protocol with a total of 11 known survivors with varying sequelae.[2]

Prognosis

Vaccination after exposure, PEP, is highly successful in preventing the disease.[3] In unvaccinated humans, rabies is almost always fatal after neurological symptoms have developed.[4]

Epidemiology

Main article: Prevalence of rabies
Deaths from rabies per million persons in 2012
  0
  1
  2–4
  5–9
  10–17
  18–69
File:Rabies Free Countries and Territories.svg
Map of rabies-free countries and territories

In 2010, an estimated 26,000 people died from rabies, down from 54,000 in 1990.[5] The majority of the deaths occurred in Asia and Africa.[4] As of 2015, India, followed by China (approximately 6,000), and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600) had the most cases.[6] A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has a goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030.[7]

India

India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs,[8] whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs.[9] Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is hindered by a form of mass hysteria known as puppy pregnancy syndrome (PPS). Dog bite victims with PPS, male as well as female, become convinced that puppies are growing inside them, and often seek help from faith healers rather than medical services.[10] An estimated 20,000 people die every year from rabies in India, more than a third of the global total.[9]

Australia

The rabies virus survives in widespread, varied, rural animal reservoirs. Despite Australia's official rabies free status,[11] Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), discovered in 1996, is a strain of rabies prevalent in native bat populations. There have been three human cases of ABLV in Australia, all of them fatal.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.[citation needed]

Singapore

Singapore has been completely rabies free for decades, with its last reported case in 1953. This has been attributed to strict quarantine laws including stringent checks on dogs, cats and wild animals imported into the country, as well as intensive control of feral animal populations.[12] Such measures are regulated by the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, a government statutory board.[13]

United States

File:Mm6823e1-F1.gif
Rabies cases in humans and domestic animals — United States, 1938–2018

Canine-specific rabies has been eradicated in the United States. But rabies is common among wild animals in the United States, and an average of 100 dogs become infected from other wildlife each year.[14][15] Bats, raccoons, skunks and foxes account for almost all reported cases (98% in 2009). Rabid bats are found in all 48 contiguous states. Other reservoirs are more limited geographically; for example, the raccoon rabies virus variant is only found in a relatively narrow band along the East Coast.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.[citation needed]

Due to a high public awareness of the virus, efforts at vaccination of domestic animals and curtailment of feral populations, and availability of postexposure prophylaxis, incidence of rabies in humans is very rare in the United States. From 1960 to 2018, a total of 125 human rabies cases were reported in the United States; 36 (28%) were attributed to dog bites during international travel.[16] Among the 89 infections acquired in the United States, 62 (70%) were attributed to bats.[16] No Americans have died from rabies since 2018, when a 55-year-old Utah man who had "extensive contact with bats" died from the disease.[17]

Europe

Either no or very few cases of rabies are reported each year in Europe; cases are contracted both during travel and in Europe.[18]

In Switzerland the disease was virtually eliminated after scientists placed chicken heads laced with live attenuated vaccine in the Swiss Alps.[19] The foxes of Switzerland, proven to be the main source of rabies in the country, ate the chicken heads and immunized themselves.[19][20]

Italy, after being declared rabies-free from 1997 to 2008, has witnessed a reemergence of the disease in wild animals in the Triveneto regions (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia), due to the spreading of an epidemic in the Balkans that also affected Austria. An extensive wild animal vaccination campaign eliminated the virus from Italy again, and it regained the rabies-free country status in 2013, the last reported case of rabies being reported in a red fox in early 2011.[21][22]

The United Kingdom has been free of rabies since the early 20th century except for a rabies-like virus in a few Daubenton's bats. There has been one fatal case of transmission to a human. There have been four deaths from rabies, transmitted abroad by dog bites, since 2000. The last infection in the UK occurred in 1922, and the last death from indigenous rabies was in 1902.[23][24] Unlike many of the other countries of Europe it is protected by being an island, and by strict quarantine procedures.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.[citation needed]

Mexico

Mexico was certified by the World Health Organization as free of dog-transmitted rabies in 2019 since no case of dog-human transmission has been recorded in two years.[25]

History

File:Cantigas de Santa Maria-275-5.jpg
Miniature of the Cantiga #275 depicting two monks hospitaller with rabies being carried before St. Mary of Terena.[26]
File:Middle Ages rabid dog.jpg
A woodcut from the Middle Ages showing a rabid dog
File:Sauvages de la Croix, François Boissier de – Dissertation sur la nature et la cause de la Rage, 1777 – BEIC 3001126.jpg
François Boissier de Sauvages de Lacroix, Della natura e causa della rabbia (Dissertation sur la nature et la cause de la Rage), 1777

Rabies has been known since around 2000 BC.[27] The first written record of rabies is in the Mesopotamian Codex of Eshnunna (circa 1930 BC), which dictates that the owner of a dog showing symptoms of rabies should take preventive measure against bites. If another person were bitten by a rabid dog and later died, the owner was heavily fined.[28]

In Ancient Greece, rabies was supposed to be caused by Lyssa, the spirit of mad rage.[29]

Ineffective folk remedies abounded in the medical literature of the ancient world. The physician Scribonius Largus prescribed a poultice of cloth and hyena skin; Antaeus recommended a preparation made from the skull of a hanged man.[30]

Rabies appears to have originated in the Old World, the first epizootic in the New World occurring in Boston in 1768.[31] It spread from there, over the next few years, to various other states, as well as to the French West Indies, eventually becoming common all across North America.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.Script error: The module returned a nil value. It is supposed to return an export table.[citation needed]

Rabies was considered a scourge for its prevalence in the 19th century. In France and Belgium, where Saint Hubert was venerated, the "St Hubert's Key" was heated and applied to cauterize the wound. By an application of magical thinking, dogs were branded with the key in hopes of protecting them from rabies. The fear of rabies was almost irrational, due to the number of vectors (mostly rabid dogs) and the absence of any efficacious treatment. It was not uncommon for a person bitten by a dog merely suspected of being rabid to commit suicide or to be killed by others.[32]

In ancient times the attachment of the tongue (the lingual frenulum, a mucous membrane) was cut and removed as this was where rabies was thought to originate. This practice ceased with the discovery of the actual cause of rabies.[33] Louis Pasteur's 1885 nerve tissue vaccine was successful, and was progressively improved to reduce often severe side-effects.[34]

In modern times, the fear of rabies has not diminished, and the disease and its symptoms, particularly agitation, have served as an inspiration for several works of zombie or similarly themed fiction, often portraying rabies as having mutated into a stronger virus which fills humans with murderous rage or incurable illness, bringing about a devastating, widespread pandemic.[35]

Etymology

The term is derived from the Latin rabies, "madness".[36] This, in turn, may be related to the Sanskrit rabhas, "to rage".[37] The Greeks derived the word lyssa, from lud or "violent"; this root is used in the genus name of the rabies virus, Lyssavirus.[32]

Other animals

Main article: Rabies in animals

Rabies is infectious to mammals; three stages of central nervous system infection are recognized. The first stage is a one- to three-day period characterized by behavioral changes and is known as the prodromal stage. The second is the excitative stage, which lasts three to four days. This stage is often known as "furious rabies" for the tendency of the affected animal to be hyper-reactive to external stimuli and bite at anything near. The third is the paralytic stage and is caused by damage to motor neurons. Incoordination is seen, owing to rear limb paralysis, and drooling and difficulty swallowing is caused by paralysis of facial and throat muscles. Death is usually caused by respiratory arrest.[38]

Research

The outer shell of the rabies virus, stripped of its RNA contents and thus unable to cause disease, may be used as a vector for the delivery of unrelated genetic material in a research setting. It has the advantage over other pseudotyping methods for gene delivery that the cell targeting (tissue tropism) is more specific for the central nervous system, a difficult-to-reach site, obviating the need for invasive delivery methods. It is also capable of infecting neighboring "upstream" cells, moving from one cell to axons of the next at synapses, and is thus used for retrograde tracing in neuronal circuits.[39]

Evidence indicates artificially increasing the permeability of the blood–brain barrier, which normally does not allow most immune cells across, promotes viral clearance.[40][41]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Milwaukee Protocol, version 6 (updated November 2018)" (PDF).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ledesma, L. A.; Lemos, E. R.; Horta, M. A. (2020). "Comparing clinical protocols for the treatment of human rabies: the Milwaukee protocol and the Brazilian protocol (Recife)". Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical. 53: e20200352. doi:10.1590/0037-8682-0352-2020. PMC 7670764. PMID 33174958.
  3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Lite2009
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Rabies". World Health Organization (WHO). September 2011. Archived from the original on 31 December 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
  5. ↑ Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, et al. (December 2012). "Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2095–128. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30050819. PMID 23245604. S2CID 1541253.
  6. ↑ Hampson K, Coudeville L, Lembo T, Sambo M, Kieffer A, Attlan M, et al. (April 2015). "Estimating the global burden of endemic canine rabies". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9 (4): e0003709. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003709. PMC 4400070. PMID 25881058.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ↑ "Rabies". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  8. ↑ Dugan E (30 April 2008). "Dead as a dodo? Why scientists fear for the future of the Asian vulture". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2008. India now has the highest rate of human rabies in the world.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Harris G (6 August 2012). "Where Streets Are Thronged With Strays Baring Fangs". New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2012.
  10. ↑ Medicine challenges Indian superstition | Asia | DW.DE | 31.12.2012 Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ↑ "Essential rabies maps" Archived 17 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine. World Health Organization (WHO).
  12. ↑ "Rabies - National Centre for Infectious Diseases". www.ncid.sg. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  13. ↑ "Rabies". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  14. ↑ "CDC – Rabies Surveillance in the U.S.: Human Rabies – Rabies". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  15. ↑ Fox M (7 September 2007). "U.S. free of canine rabies virus". Reuters. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017. "We don't want to misconstrue that rabies has been eliminated – dog rabies virus has been," CDC rabies expert Dr. Charles Rupprecht told Reuters in a telephone interview.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Pieracci EG, Pearson CM, Wallace RM, Blanton JD, Whitehouse ER, Ma X, et al. (June 2019). "Vital Signs: Trends in Human Rabies Deaths and Exposures - United States, 1938-2018". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68 (23): 524–528. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6823e1. PMC 6613553. PMID 31194721.
  17. ↑ Lorenz, Jonna. "Human Rabies Case in Utah Underscores Importance of Public Health Efforts". ContagionLive. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
  18. ↑ "SURVEILLANCE REPORT - Annual Epidemiological Report for 2015 - Rabies, ECDC (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control)" (PDF). Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Grambo
  20. ↑ "Switzerland ended rabies epidemic by air dropping vaccinated chicken heads from helicopters / thefactsource.com". 20 November 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  21. ↑ "Rabies in Africa: The RESOLAB network". 29 June 2015. Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  22. ↑ "Ministero della Salute: "Italia è indenne dalla rabbia". l'Ultimo caso nel 2011 - Quotidiano Sanità". Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  23. ↑ "Rabies". NHS. 23 February 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  24. ↑ "Q&A: Rabies". BBC News. 17 April 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  25. ↑ "Cómo México se convirtió en el primer país del mundo libre de rabia transmitida por perros". BBC News. 12 November 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  26. ↑ Santo Tomás Pérez, Magdalena (2002). La asistencia a los enfermos en Castilla en la Baja Edad Media. Universidad de Valladolid. pp. 172–173. ISBN 84-688-3906-X – via Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
  27. ↑ Adamson PB (1977). "The spread of rabies into Europe and the probable origin of this disease in antiquity". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 109 (2): 140–4. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00133829. JSTOR 25210880. PMID 11632333.
  28. ↑ Dunlop RH, Williams DJ (1996). Veterinary Medicine: An Illustrated History. Mosby. ISBN 978-0-8016-3209-9.
  29. ↑ "Rabies: an ancient disease".
  30. ↑ Barrett AD, Stanberry LR (2009). Vaccines for Biodefense and Emerging and Neglected Diseases. Academic Press. p. 612. ISBN 9780080919027. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  31. ↑ The Natural History of Rabies Archived 2 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    The first major epizootic in North America was reported in 1768, continuing until 1771 when foxes and dogs carried the disease to swine and domestic animals. The malady was so unusual that it was reported as a new disease
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Rotivel Y. "Introduction". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  33. ↑ Baer G (1991). The Natural History of Rabies. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849367601. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
  34. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Giesen2015
  35. ↑ Than K (27 October 2010). ""Zombie Virus" Possible via Rabies-Flu Hybrid?". National Geographic. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
  36. ↑ Simpson DP (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell. p. 883. ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6.
  37. ↑ Dalfardi B, Esnaashary MH, Yarmohammadi H (February 2014). "Rabies in medieval Persian literature - the Canon of Avicenna (980-1037 AD)". Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 3 (1): 7. doi:10.1186/2049-9957-3-7. PMC 3933285. PMID 24533686.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  38. ↑ Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine (4th ed.). W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 978-0-7216-6795-9.
  39. ↑ Carpentier DC, Vevis K, Trabalza A, Georgiadis C, Ellison SM, Asfahani RI, Mazarakis ND (July 2012). "Enhanced pseudotyping efficiency of HIV-1 lentiviral vectors by a rabies/vesicular stomatitis virus chimeric envelope glycoprotein". Gene Therapy. 19 (7): 761–74. doi:10.1038/gt.2011.124. PMID 21900965.
  40. ↑ Roy A, Hooper DC (August 2007). "Lethal silver-haired bat rabies virus infection can be prevented by opening the blood-brain barrier". Journal of Virology. 81 (15): 7993–8. doi:10.1128/JVI.00710-07. PMC 1951307. PMID 17507463.
  41. ↑ Roy A, Phares TW, Koprowski H, Hooper DC (February 2007). "Failure to open the blood-brain barrier and deliver immune effectors to central nervous system tissues leads to the lethal outcome of silver-haired bat rabies virus infection". Journal of Virology. 81 (3): 1110–8. doi:10.1128/JVI.01964-06. PMC 1797506. PMID 17108029.
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